Mid‐infrared Spectra of Class I Protostars in Taurus (original) (raw)
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We present observations of Taurus-Auriga Class I/II protostars obtained with the Spitzer InfraRed Spectrograph. Detailed spectral fits to the 6 and 15.2 micron ice features are made, using publicly-available laboratory data, to constrain the molecular composition, abundances, and levels of thermal processing along the lines of sight. We provide an inventory of the molecular environments observed, which have an average composition dominated by water ice with ∼12% CO 2 (abundance relative to H 2 O), 2-9% CH 3 OH, ∼14% NH 3 , ∼3% CH 4 , ∼2% H 2 CO, ∼0.6% HCOOH, and ∼0.5% SO 2 . We find CO 2 /H 2 O ratios nearly equivalent to those observed in cold clouds and lines of sight toward the galactic center. The unidentified 6.8 micron profiles vary from source to source, and it is shown to be likely that even combinations of the most common candidates (NH + 4 and CH 3 OH) are inadequate to explain the feature fully. We discuss correlations among SED spectral indices, abundance ratios, and thermally-processed ice fractions and their implications for CO 2 formation and evolution. Comparison of our spectral fits with cold molecular cloud sight-lines indicates abundant prestellar ice environments made even richer by the radiative effects of protostars. Our results add additional constraints and a finer level of detail to current full-scale models of protostellar and protoplanetary systems.
2001
We explore the infrared M band (4.7 um) spectrum of the class I protostar L1489 IRS in the Taurus Molecular Cloud. This is the highest resolution wide coverage spectrum at this wavelength of a low mass protostar observed to date (R=25,000; Dv=12 km/s). Many narrow absorption lines of gas phase 12CO, 13CO, and C18O are detected, as well as a prominent band of solid 12CO. The gas phase 12CO lines have red shifted absorption wings (up to 100 km/s), likely originating from warm disk material falling toward the central object. The isotopes and the 12CO line wings are successfully fitted with a contracting disk model of this evolutionary transitional object (Hogerheijde 2001). This shows that the inward motions seen in millimeter wave emission lines continue to within ~0.1 AU from the star. The colder parts of the disk are traced by the prominent CO ice band. The band profile results from CO in 'polar' ices (CO mixed with H2O), and CO in 'apolar' ices. At the high spectral resolution, the 'apolar' component is, for the first time, resolved into two distinct components, likely due to pure CO and CO mixed with CO2, O2 and/or N2. The ices have probably experienced thermal processing in the upper disk layer traced by our pencil absorption beam: much of the volatile 'apolar' ices has evaporated and the depletion factor of CO onto grains is remarkably low (~7%). This study shows that high spectral resolution 4.7 um observations provide important and unique information on the dynamics and structure of protostellar disks and the evolution of ices in these disks.
Infrared Spectroscopy of Intermediate-mass Young Stellar Objects
Astrophysical Journal, 2011
In this paper we present Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph spectroscopy for 14 intermediate-mass young stellar objects. We use Spitzer spectroscopy to investigate the physical properties of these sources and their environments. Our sample can be divided into two types of objects: young isolated, embedded objects with spectra that are dominated by ice and silicate absorption bands, and more evolved objects that are dominated by extended emission from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and pure H2 rotational lines. We are able to constrain the illuminating FUV fields by classifying the PAH bands below 9micron. For most of the sources we are able to detect several atomic fine structure lines. In particular, the [NeII] line appearing in two regions could originate from unresolved photodissociation regions (PDRs) or J-shocks. We relate the identified spectral features to observations obtained from NIR through submillimeter imaging. The spatial extent of several H2 and PAH bands is matched with morphologies identified in previous Spitzer/IRAC observations. This also allows us to distinguish between the different H2 excitation mechanisms. In addition, we calculate the optical extinction from the silicate bands and use this to constrain the spectral energy distribution fit, allowing us to estimate the masses of these YSOs.
The Astrophysical Journal, 2002
A (sub-)millimeter line and continuum study of the Class I protostar Elias 29 in the Ophiuchi molecular cloud is presented whose goals are to understand the nature of this source and to locate the ices that are abundantly present along this line of sight. Within 15 00-60 00 beams, several different components contribute to the line emission. Two different foreground clouds are detected, an envelope/disk system and a dense ridge of HCO +-rich material. The latter two components are spatially separated in millimeter interferometer maps. We analyze the envelope/disk system by using inside-out collapse and flared disk models. The disk is in a relatively face-on orientation (<60), which explains many of the remarkable observational features of Elias 29, such as its flat spectral energy distribution, its brightness in the near-infrared, the extended components found in speckle interferometry observations, and its high-velocity molecular outflow. It cannot account for the ices seen along the line of sight, however. A small fraction of the ices is present in a (remnant) envelope of mass 0.12-0.33 M , but most of the ices ($70%) are present in cool (T < 40 K) quiescent foreground clouds. This explains the observed absence of thermally processed ices (crystallized H 2 O) toward Elias 29. Nevertheless, the temperatures could be sufficiently high to account for the low abundance of apolar (CO, N 2 , O 2) ices. This work shows that it is crucial to obtain spectrally and spatially resolved information from single-dish and interferometric molecular gas observations in order to determine the nature of protostars and to interpret Infrared Space Observatory and future Space Infrared Telescope Facility observations of ices and silicates along a pencil beam.
The Astrophysical Journal, 2013
We present 50-210 μm spectral scans of 30 Class 0/I protostellar sources, obtained with Herschel-PACS, and 0.5-1000 μm spectral energy distributions, as part of the Dust, Ice, and Gas in Time Key Program. Some sources exhibit up to 75 H2O lines ranging in excitation energy from 100 to 2000 K, 12 transitions of OH, and CO rotational lines ranging from J = 14 → 13 up to J = 40 → 39. [O I] is detected in all but one source in the entire sample; among the sources with detectable [O I] are two very low luminosity objects. The mean 63/145 μm [O I] flux ratio is 17.2 ± 9.2. The [O I] 63 μm line correlates with L bol, but not with the time-averaged outflow rate derived from low-J CO maps. [C II] emission is in general not local to the source. The sample L bol increased by 1.25 (1.06) and T bol decreased to 0.96 (0.96) of mean (median) values with the inclusion of the Herschel data. Most CO rotational diagrams are characterized by two optically thin components ({\langle { {N}}\rangle} = (0.70 +/- 1.12){{} \times 10^{49}} total particles). { {N}}_CO correlates strongly with L bol, but neither T rot nor { {N}}_CO(warm)/{ {N}}_CO(hot) correlates with L bol, suggesting that the total excited gas is related to the current source luminosity, but that the excitation is primarily determined by the physics of the interaction (e.g., UV-heating/shocks). Rotational temperatures for H2O ({\langle {T_rot}\rangle } = 194 +/- 85 K) and OH ({\langle {T_rot}\rangle } =183 +/- 117 K) are generally lower than for CO, and much of the scatter in the observations about the best fit is attributed to differences in excitation conditions and optical depths among the detected lines.
Astronomy & Astrophysics, 2011
Context. Our knowledge of circumstellar disks has traditionally been based on studies of dust. However, gas dominates the disk mass and its study is key to our understanding of accretion, outflows, and ultimately planet formation. The Spitzer Space Telescope provides access to gas emission lines in the mid-infrared, providing crucial new diagnostics of the physical conditions in accretion disks and outflows. Aims. We seek to identify gas emission lines in mid-infrared spectra of 64 pre-main-sequence stars in Taurus. Using line luminosities and other known star-disk-outflow parameters, we aim to identify correlations that will help to constrain gas heating, excitation mechanisms, and the line formation. Methods. We have based our study on Spitzer observations using the Infrared Spectrograph (IRS), mainly with the high-resolution modules. Line luminosities (or 3σ upper limits) have been obtained by fitting Gaussian profiles to the lines. We have further searched for correlations between the line luminosities and different parameters related to the star-disk system. Results. We have detected H 2 (17.03, 28.22 μm) emission in 6 objects, [Ne II] (12.81 μm) emission in 18 objects, and [Fe II] (17.93, 25.99 μm) emission in 7 objects. [Ne II] detections are found primarily in Class II objects. The luminosity of the [Ne II] line (L NeII) is in general higher for objects known to drive jets than for those without known jets, but the two groups are not statistically distinguishable. L NeII is correlated with X-ray luminosity, but for Class II objects only. L NeII is also correlated with disk mass and accretion rate when the sample is divided into high and low accretors. Furthermore, we find correlations of L NeII with mid-IR continuum luminosity and with luminosity of the [O I] (6300 Å) line, the latter being an outflow tracer. L [FeII] correlates withṀ acc. No correlations were found between L H 2 and several tested parameters. Conclusions. Our study reveals a general trend toward accretion-related phenomena as the origin of the gas emission lines. Shocks in jets and outflowing material are more likely to play a significant role than shocks in infalling material. The role of X-ray irradiation is less prominent but still present for [Ne II], in particular for Class II sources, while the lack of correlation between [Fe II] and [Ne II] points toward different emitting mechanisms.
Discs and the 10- m silicate spectra of young stellar objects with non-photospheric continua
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 2001
Dust emission in the non-photospheric 10-mm continua of HL Tau and Taurus-Elias 7 (Haro6-10, GV Tau) is distinguished from foreground silicate absorption using a simple disc model with radial power-law temperature and mass±density distributions based on the IR± submm model of T Tauri stars by Adams, Lada & Shu with foreground extinction. The resulting 10-mm absorption profiles are remarkably similar to those of the field star Taurus-Elias 16 obtained by Bowey, Adamson & Whittet. The fitted temperature indices are 0.44 (HL Tau) and 0.33 (Elias 7) in agreement with Boss's theoretical models of the 200±300 K region, but lower than those of IR±submm discs (0.5±0.61; Mannings & Emerson); a significant fraction of the modelled 10-mm emission of HL Tau is optically thin, whilst that of Elias 7 is optically thick. We suggest that HL Tau's optically thin component arises from silicate dust within low-density layers above an optically thick disc.
Astronomy & Astrophysics, 2013
Context. Understanding the physical phenomena involved in the earlierst stages of protostellar evolution requires knowledge of the heating and cooling processes that occur in the surroundings of a young stellar object. Spatially resolved information from its constituent gas and dust provides the necessary constraints to distinguish between different theories of accretion energy dissipation into the envelope. Aims. Our aims are to quantify the far-infrared line emission from low-mass protostars and the contribution of different atomic and molecular species to the gas cooling budget, to determine the spatial extent of the emission, and to investigate the underlying excitation conditions. Analysis of the line cooling will help us characterize the evolution of the relevant physical processes as the protostar ages. Methods. Far-infrared Herschel-PACS spectra of 18 low-mass protostars of various luminosities and evolutionary stages are studied in the context of the WISH key program. For most targets, the spectra include many wavelength intervals selected to cover specific CO, H2O, OH, and atomic lines. For four targets the spectra span the entire 55-200 μm region. The PACS field-of-view covers ~47" with the resolution of 9.4". Results. Most of the protostars in our sample show strong atomic and molecular far-infrared emission. Water is detected in 17 out of 18 objects (except TMC1A), including 5 Class I sources. The high-excitation H2O 818-707 63.3 μm line (Eu/kB = 1071 K) is detected in 7 sources. CO transitions from J = 14-13 up to J = 49 - 48 are found and show two distinct temperature components on Boltzmann diagrams with rotational temperatures of ~350 K and ~700 K. H2O has typical excitation temperatures of ~150 K. Emission from both Class 0 and I sources is usually spatially extended along the outflow direction but with a pattern that depends on the species and the transition. In the extended sources, emission is stronger off source and extended on &≥10,000 AU scales; in the compact sample, more than half of the flux originates within 1000 AU of the protostar. The H2O line fluxes correlate strongly with those of the high-J CO lines, both for the full array and for the central position, as well as with the bolometric luminosity and envelope mass. They correlate less strongly with OH fluxes and not with [O I] fluxes. In contrast, [O I] and OH often peak together at the central position. Conclusions. The PACS data probe at least two physical components. The H2O and CO emission very likely arises in non-dissociative (irradiated) shocks along the outflow walls with a range of pre-shock densities. Some OH is also associated with this component, most likely resulting from H2O photodissociation. UV-heated gas contributes only a minor fraction to the CO emission observed by PACS, based on the strong correlation between the shock-dominated CO 24-23 line and the CO 14-13 line. [O I] and some of the OH emission probe dissociative shocks in the inner envelope. The total far-infrared cooling is dominated by H2O and CO, with the fraction contributed by [O I] increasing for Class I sources. Consistent with previous studies, the ratio of total far-infrared line emission over bolometric luminosity decreases with the evolutionary state.
Spitzer Space Telescope Spectroscopy of Ices toward Low-Mass Embedded Protostars
Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 2004
Sensitive 5-38 um Spitzer Space Telescope (SST) and ground based 3-5 um spectra of the embedded low mass protostars B5 IRS1 and HH46 IRS show deep ice absorption bands superposed on steeply rising mid-infrared continua. The ices likely originate in the circumstellar envelopes. The CO2 bending mode at 15 um is a particularly powerful tracer of the ice composition and processing history. Toward these protostars, this band shows little evidence for thermal processing at temperatures above 50 K. Signatures of lower temperature processing are present in the CO and OCN- bands, however. The observed CO2 profile indicates an intimate mixture with H2O, but not necessarily with CH3OH, in contrast to some high mass protostars. This is consistent with the low CH3OH abundance derived from the ground based L band spectra. The CO2/H2O column density ratios are high in both B5 IRS1 and HH46 IRS (~35%). Clearly, the SST spectra are essential to study ice evolution in low mass protostellar environments, and to eventually determine the relation between interstellar and solar system ices.
Spitzer Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy of Ices toward Extincted Background Stars
Astrophysical Journal, 2005
A powerful way to observe directly the solid state inventory of dense molecular clouds is by infrared spectroscopy of background stars. We present Spitzer/IRS 5-20 micron spectra of ices toward stars behind the Serpens and Taurus molecular clouds, probing visual extinctions of 10-34 mag. These data provide the first complete inventory of solid-state material in dense clouds before star formation begins. The spectra show prominent 6.0 and 6.85 micron bands. In contrast to some young stellar objects (YSOs), most (~75%) of the 6.0 micron band is explained by the bending mode of pure water ice. In realistic mixtures this number increases to 85%, because the peak strength of the water bending mode is very sensitive to the molecular environment. The strength of the 6.85 micron band is comparable to what is observed toward YSOs. Thus, the production of the carrier of this band does not depend on the energetic input of a nearby source. The spectra show large abundances of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (20-40% with respect to water ice). Compared to YSOs, the band profile of the 15 micron carbon dioxide bending mode lacks the signatures of crystallization, confirming the cold, pristine nature of these lines of sight. After the dominant species are removed, there are residuals that suggest the presence of minor species such as formic acid and possibly ammonia. Clearly, models of star formation should begin with dust models already coated with a fairly complex mixture of ices.