Australian Army Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Over the twentieth century 35,000 Australians suffered as prisoners of war in conflicts ranging from World War I to Korea. What was the reality of their captivity? Beyond Surrender presents for the first time the diversity of the... more

The Changi story is synonymous with suffering, hardship, and the Australian prisoner-of-war experience in the Second World War. It is also one of ingenuity, resourcefulness, and survival. Combining prisoners’ cartoons, paintings,... more

The Changi story is synonymous with suffering, hardship, and the Australian prisoner-of-war experience in the Second World War. It is also one of ingenuity, resourcefulness, and survival. Combining prisoners’ cartoons, paintings, photographs, and essays, The Changi Book provides a unique view of life in the camp: medical innovation; machinery and tools made from spare parts and scrap; black markets; sports and gambling; entertainment; a library and university. Seventy years after its planned publication, material for The Changi book was rediscovered in the Australian War Memorial archives and appears here for the first time along with insights from the Memorial’s experts, providing unique historical insights into some of the stories and characters behind its rich Changi collection.

Decisive Events (DEs) in the Australian Army are the principal building blocks to designbattle at the tactical level. Unfortunately from an organisational perspective, the Armyhas fostered a culture of mediocrity as it has tolerated,... more

Decisive Events (DEs) in the Australian Army are the principal building blocks to designbattle at the tactical level. Unfortunately from an organisational perspective, the Armyhas fostered a culture of mediocrity as it has tolerated, advocated and acceptedineective DEs that have been poorly derived. This results in plans that merely describea series of actions lacking specic intent or direction that consequently do not defeat anadversary. DE planning is fundamentally interwoven within the Australian Army’splanning apparatus and is a key component to the development of plans and theirarticulation.

This chapter considers the sinking of Japanese hellships carrying prisoners of war such as the Montevideo Maru and Rakuyo Maru within the wider context of the global war. It discusses international law, efforts by the Red Cross to protect... more

This chapter considers the sinking of Japanese hellships carrying prisoners of war such as the Montevideo Maru and Rakuyo Maru within the wider context of the global war. It discusses international law, efforts by the Red Cross to protect prisoners transported by sea, and the ramifications for POWs - of all sides, in the Atlantic and the Pacific - of the practice of unrestricted submarine warfare in the Second World War.

Tobruk is remembered for the eight-month siege and the aggressive policy of patrolling adopted by Major General Leslie Morshead. His strategy of “making the besiegers the besieged” kept the enemy at arm’s length and enabled the... more

Tobruk is remembered for the eight-month siege and the aggressive policy of patrolling adopted by Major General Leslie Morshead. His strategy of “making the besiegers the besieged” kept the enemy at arm’s length and enabled the Australians to dominate no man’s land and in doing so, stave off the German advance towards Egypt. The men of the Australian 9th Division began the siege as poorly trained and inadequately equipped soldiers, yet emerged triumphant against Rommel’s Afrika Korps. This paper will consider the patrolling tactics used by the 9th Division and the corresponding counter-measures of the Italians and Germans, to reveal that while the policy of aggressive patrolling was ultimately successful it was not without difficulties.

The island of Bougainville in the South Pacific was the site of one of the largest and most gruelling campaigns fought by Australian forces during the Second World War. During the offensive against the Japanese from November 1944 to... more

The island of Bougainville in the South Pacific was the site of one of the largest and most gruelling campaigns fought by Australian forces during the Second World War. During the offensive against the Japanese from November 1944 to August 1945, more than 500 Australians were killed and two Victoria Crosses awarded. A veteran later described Bougainville as 'one long bloody hard slog'. Despite this, little is known about the campaign, which was dismissed as an unnecessary and costly operation. In the first major study of the Bougainville campaign since 1963, Karl James argues that it was in fact a justifiable use of Australia's military resources. Drawing on original archival research, including wartime reports and soldiers' letters and diaries, James illustrates the experience of Australian soldiers who fought. Generously illustrated with over forty photographs, this important book tells how this often overlooked battle played an important part in Australia's Second World War victory.

On 14 August 2002 Prime Ministers John Howard and Sir Michael Somare dedicated the Isurava war memorial on the Kokoda Trail. The memorial’s most striking feature were four granite slabs engraved with the words: “courage”, “endurance”,... more

On 14 August 2002 Prime Ministers John Howard and Sir Michael Somare dedicated the Isurava war memorial on the Kokoda Trail. The memorial’s most striking feature were four granite slabs engraved with the words: “courage”, “endurance”, “mateship”, and “sacrifice”. These attributes, these values, have become associated with the Australian experience during the Kokoda campaign, but particularly the battle of Isurava, fought from the night of 26 August until the early hours of 30 August 1942. Here the Australians dug in “using their bayonets, bully beef tins and steel helmets”, an officer wrote later, and met the Japanese with “Bren-gun and Tommy-gun, with bayonet and grenade … with the buffet of fist and boot and rifle-butt … [in] vicious fighting, man to man and hand to hand”. Isurava was one of the first major actions of the Kokoda campaign. It was where exhausted, poorly trained Militiamen from the Australian 39th Battalion and the Middle East veterans of the 2/14th Battalion of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) fought vainly to halt the Japanese 144th Infantry Regiment of the South Seas Force advancing across Papua’s Owen Stanley Range. Epitomising those values of “courage” and “sacrifice”, here 24-year-old Private Bruce Kingsbury was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross (VC) for his actions during a critical moment during the battle. At Isurava, Prime Minister Howard said, the battle “brought out all that is best in the Australian traditions and the Australian fighting spirit”.
The bitter campaign fought in Papua along the Kokoda Trail between July and November 1942 has become one of the defining wartime experiences of Australia during the Second World War. The attributes displayed by the Australian soldiers – their courage, determination, resourcefulness and, above all else, mateship – have become closely identified with perceived “Australian values”. It is this association that in part helps explain the significance of the name “Kokoda” today.
It is easy to be parochial. Kokoda and Milne Bay were significant battles in Papua, but it was the naval battles of Coral Sea and Midway fought in May and June 1942, and the epic struggle for Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands from August to February 1943, that blunted the Japanese thrust south into the Pacific. The fighting in Papua was conducted on the fringe of a vast war fought by the Allies to defeat Japan. This war was waged from the frozen Aleutian Islands in the North Pacific, across China and Burma, over the vastness of the Central Pacific, to the dense jungles of New Guinea and the Solomon Islands in the South Pacific. The British Commonwealth – including Australian airmen and sailors – and the United States continued the fight against Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in North Africa, the Atlantic Ocean, and in the skies above occupied Europe. The titanic German and Soviet clashes on the Eastern Front dwarfed anything experienced by Australian forces in the war. It is important to remember that the fighting in Papua was just one front in a global war.

On morning of 1 July 1945 hundreds of warships and vessels from the United States Navy, the Royal Australian Navy, and the Royal Netherlands Navy lay off the coast of Balikpapan, an oil refining centre on Borneo’s south-east coast. This... more

On morning of 1 July 1945 hundreds of warships and vessels from the United States Navy, the Royal Australian Navy, and the Royal Netherlands Navy lay off the coast of Balikpapan, an oil refining centre on Borneo’s south-east coast. This offensive to land the veteran 7th Australian Infantry Division at Balikpapan was the last of a series amphibious operations conducted by the Allies to liberate areas of Dutch and British territory on Borneo. It was the largest amphibious operation conducted by Australian forces during the Second World War. Within an hour some 16,500 troops were ashore and pushing inland, along with nearly 1,000 vehicles. More than 33,000 personnel from the 7th Division and Allied forces were landed in the amphibious assault.
Balikpapan is often cited as an example of the expertise achieved by Australian forces in amphibious operations during the war. It was a remarkable development. Four years earlier, the capability of Australia or even the United States to conduct amphibious operations in the South-West Pacific Area was limited if not non-existent. This paper provides a brief outline of the development of amphibious operations in the SWPA during the Second World War.

On morning of 1 July 1945 hundreds of warships and vessels from the United States Navy, the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), and the Royal Netherlands Navy lay off the coast of Balikpapan, an oil refining centre on Borneo’s south-east coast.... more

On morning of 1 July 1945 hundreds of warships and vessels from the United States Navy, the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), and the Royal Netherlands Navy lay off the coast of Balikpapan, an oil refining centre on Borneo’s south-east coast. This offensive to land the veteran 7th Australian Infantry Division at Balikpapan was the last of a series amphibious operations conducted by the Allies to liberate areas of Dutch and British territory on Borneo. It was the largest amphibious operation conducted by Australian forces during the Second World War. Within an hour some 16,500 troops were ashore and pushing inland, along with nearly 1,000 vehicles. Ultimately more than 33,000 personnel from the 7th Division and Allied forces were landed in the amphibious assault. Balikpapan is often cited as an example of the expertise achieved by Australian forces in amphibious operations during the war. It was a remarkable development. Four years earlier, the capability of Australia or even the United States (US) to conduct amphibious operations in the South-West Pacific Area (SWPA) was limited if not non-existent. This paper provides a brief outline of the development of amphibious operations in the SWPA during the Second World War.

“Army is Australia’s biggest and most experienced user of drones,” claimed General Angus Campbell when Chief of Army. The facts support him. Air Force is out of the drone business until next decade when Triton and perhaps an armed drone... more

“Army is Australia’s biggest and most experienced user of drones,” claimed General Angus Campbell when Chief of Army. The facts support him. Air Force is out of the drone business until next decade when Triton and perhaps an armed drone enter service, although some individuals are embedded in US Air Force ‘Predator’units. Navy is more advanced with eight ScanEagle systems operational, including on recent frigate deployments to the Middle East, and is trialling the Schiebel Camcopter S-100. By comparison with the other Services, Army leads the way, with more than a decade of drone flying experience, including in-combat operations. It operates dozens of drones while bringing into service many more, albeit many are tiny.

Their activities are secret. Their missions are classified. Their identities are protected. They operate in secrecy to protect Australia’s people and national interests, and to support its allies. Highly trained, motivated, and... more

Their activities are secret. Their missions are classified. Their identities are protected. They operate in secrecy to protect Australia’s people and national interests, and to support its allies. Highly trained, motivated, and experienced, Australia’s Special Operations Forces (SOF) can with little notice be inserted undetected by land, sea, or air into any environment
to conduct sensitive combat or noncombat operations. They constitute
a fast, flexible, low-cost, and discreet asset. They have been continuously
deployed both at home and abroad for nearly two decades. They won
honours in Afghanistan, fought in Iraq, helped establish security in East Timor, performed counter-terrorist roles in Australia, and supported domestic security agencies.

The Afghanistan: Lessons from Australia’s Whole-of-Government Mission Report, commissioned by the Department of Defence, in coordination with the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and the Australian Federal Police, outlines the... more

The Afghanistan: Lessons from Australia’s Whole-of-Government Mission Report, commissioned by the Department of Defence, in coordination with the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and the Australian Federal Police, outlines the strengths, good practices and challenges of Australia’s mission in Afghanistan at the whole-of-government level.
While each overseas mission has its own particular circumstances and context, there are important lessons that we can take away from the Afghanistan experience.
This Report highlights 17 such lessons to enhance how we work across government and improve cooperation for complex missions of the future.
Key lessons include:
• Involving all relevant departments and agencies in whole-of-government policy development and planning from the outset;
• Establishing a senior level inter-agency group to oversee policy development and provide a high-level nexus with the National Security Committee of Cabinet and the Secretaries’ Committee on National Security;
• Recognising the value of civil-military co-leadership in the field;
• Agreeing principles and protocols be developed at the outset of the mission to define working relationships and responsibilities between different services and agencies;
• Undertaking collective mission preparation involving military, civilians and police, including exercises focused on developing cross-agency relationships at the headquarters level;
• Establishing a cross-agency public affairs capability to highlight the whole-of-government nature of the mission;
• Synchronizing posting and deployment cycles for civilian, military and police personnel;
• Tasking the Australian Civil-Military Centre with providing a standing whole-of-government lessons learned capability for overseas missions.

Australian and American soldiers rarely served together in the front line. Buna in late 1942 is a notable exception. Another, and less known, instance took place on Mount Tambu in the mountains above Salamaua in mid-1943. This closeness... more

Australian and American soldiers rarely served together in the front line. Buna in late 1942 is a notable exception. Another, and less known, instance took place on Mount Tambu in the mountains above Salamaua in mid-1943. This closeness is most powerfully illustrated by the actions of the stretcher-bearer Corporal Leslie Allen. Allen was almost the stereotype of a bronzed ANZAC. Born in Ballarat East, his early years were difficult. After he was abandoned by his parents at the age of 12, he began working as a farm labourer. By the time he enlisted in the army in 1940, the 23-year-old was a tall and powerfully built man who earned the nickname "Bull" for charging through the opposition on the football field. Personally brave, Allen struggled with authority.

A small number of Australians were caught up in the brutal battle for Hue during the Tet Offensive.

Australia’s elite Special Air Service Regiment is perhaps its best-known military unit. The SAS has achieved a formidable reputation, with operational deployments to Borneo, Vietnam, East Timor, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Few people today,... more

Australia’s elite Special Air Service Regiment is perhaps its best-known military unit. The SAS has achieved a formidable reputation, with operational deployments to Borneo, Vietnam, East Timor, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Few people today, however, would be aware that the history of Australian Special Forces stretches back to the Second World War.
In late 1940 the British Army formed commando units to carry out raids and guerrilla operations in German-occupied Europe. A small British training team was also sent to Australia to set up similar units in the Australian Imperial Force, and a school was established at Foster on Wilsons Promontory in Victoria. Because of their ability to fight independently of other units the commandos became known as “independent companies”. Highly trained, each company had a nominal strength of about 290 officers and men. The wartime experiences of these independent companies were diverse: from waging a successful guerrilla war against occupying Japanese in the mountains of Timor through to conducting long-range reconnaissance patrols and raids deep into Japanese-controlled territory in New Guinea. Renamed “commando squadrons”, by the war’s end these units were also in action on Bougainville and participated in the amphibious landings on Borneo.
By concentrating on three key actions conducted by these units – the guerrilla war on Timor in 1942; the capture of the village of Kaiapit, New Guinea, in 1943; and the battle for Tarakan Hill, Borneo, in 1945 – this paper will survey the wartime history of these independent companies/commando squadrons.

Dissertation Summary - describing how the Australian Government Clothing Factory, which was responsible for the production of the Australian Army uniforms since its establishment in 1912 in South Melbourne, collaborated with scientists... more

Dissertation Summary - describing how the Australian Government Clothing Factory, which was responsible for the production of the Australian Army uniforms since its establishment in 1912 in South Melbourne, collaborated with scientists and others to introduce innovation in the uniforms and in the production process. This is set within a framework of Schumpeterian ideas of innovation.

The history of the Australian Army tends to neglect the development of 'officership', particularly during both world wars. The development of officers in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), for instance, presents an excellent opportunity... more

The history of the Australian Army tends to neglect the development of 'officership', particularly during both world wars. The development of officers in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), for instance, presents an excellent opportunity to examine the evolution of the professional Australian combat officer, particularly in terms of battalion command, and to explore the role of structured training and education in the development of command. This progressed in three broad stages. The first generation comprised the older officers of the Australia militia who provided a firm foundation for AIF infantry battalions but lacked the physical and mental toughness to cope with the rigours of combat. The second generation consisted of those junior officers who assumed battalion commands once the first generation had moved on. Although there were many excellent officers in this generation, their rise to command owed much to their natural ability over professional development. The third generation of Australian commanding officers were those who had completed formal command training and demonstrated their competence while serving as battalion second-in-commands. These men were some of the most professionally capable officers Australia had produced to that

Some 70 years ago the war correspondent George Johnston predicted that the name “Kokoda” would “live in the minds of Australians for generations, just as another name, Gallipoli, lives on as freshly”. Johnston’s words proved true. After... more

Some 70 years ago the war correspondent George Johnston predicted that the name “Kokoda” would “live in the minds of Australians for generations, just as another name, Gallipoli, lives on as freshly”. Johnston’s words proved true. After a more than a century of Australian military history, few names convey as much power or are as symbolic. Tobruk. Changi. Kapyong. Long Tan. Tarin Kowt. These names resonate, too, but it is Gallipoli and Kokoda that have become closely associated with Australian national character.
The attributes displayed by the Australians on Gallipoli and along the Kokoda Trail – their courage, determination, resourcefulness and, above all else, mateship – have become closely identified with “Australian values”. One hundred years ago the Anzac legend was born on Gallipoli. Seventy-five years ago that legend was upheld along the Kokoda Trail as Australians faced their darkest hour. This afternoon I will discuss some of the enduring resonances that connect Gallipoli and Kokoda: the rugged terrain and the extreme environment; the conditions endured by Australian soldiers; and the lasting significance of the campaigns.

In 1940 the British Army formed commando units to raid, conduct sabotage, and gather information in German-occupied Europe. A small British military mission was sent to Australia, and the first of eight Australian independent companies... more

In 1940 the British Army formed commando units to raid, conduct sabotage, and gather information in German-occupied Europe. A small British military mission was sent to Australia, and the first of eight Australian independent companies was raised in 1941. In 1943 the companies were redesignated cavalry (commando) squadrons, later just commando squadrons. Four additional commando squadrons were later established. The employment of these units evolved throughout the war. From conducting a guerrilla war on Timor against the occupying Japanese, over time their role became akin to the traditional role of cavalry; thinly deployed on the flanks of the main force, carrying out reconnaissance, conducting raids, and harassing the Japanese. Yet even as late as 1945 commando squadrons could be misused or underemployed, assigned to tasks better suited to the infantry.
This paper will provide an overview of the Australian independent companies and commando squadrons – their training, employment, and wartime experiences – offering historical lessons on their employment. This study will also provide insights into the interactions between Australians and the local peoples of the region, whose support and assistance were vital to both the survival and success of Australian forces and the Allied war effort.

This article explores the impact of military identity and culture on the retirement and reintegration of members of Special Operations Forces (SF) into civilian life. The experience of retirement is explored through interviews with five... more

This article explores the impact of military identity and culture on the retirement and reintegration of members of Special Operations Forces (SF) into civilian life. The experience of retirement is explored through interviews with five former members of the SF. These interviews were analysed to identify the shared experience of retirement including the causes, context and consequences. The data indicated that personal attachment to the unit was heightened by key aspects of SF culture (camaraderie, intensity, elitism and distinctiveness from the mainstream community). After leaving the regiment, participants described the experience of grief and subsequently employed a variety of psychological approaches to managing this emotional response and adapting to civilian life. In general, these approaches sought to replicate the military culture in the civilian environment and avoid triggers that would excite or remind former SF soldiers of their past military identity. This study seeks to...

Much has been written about WWII in the South Pacific and the battle for Rabaul, but very little about the people Imperial Japan imprisoned there. The six U.S. airmen and one Australian coast watcher who survived out of the 200 plus... more

Much has been written about WWII in the South Pacific and the battle for Rabaul, but very little about the people Imperial Japan imprisoned there. The six U.S. airmen and one Australian coast watcher who survived out of the 200 plus Allied airmen and coast watchers imprisoned at Rabaul were not alone. Thousands of other Allied POWs, hundreds of missionaries and thousands of Korean laborers and "comfort women" shared a similar fate. My father was one of the airmen who survived "paradise." Their saga is explored to better understand their captors' motives for treating their prisoners so inhumanely.

De meeste Europeanen kennen de Steyr AUG (StG 77), maar niet iedereen weet dat zijn meeste gebruikers en licentieproducenten Australië en Maleisië zijn. Oostenrijk komt pas op de derde plaats. In 2020 vierde de Australische AUG de 35e... more

De meeste Europeanen kennen de Steyr AUG (StG 77), maar niet iedereen weet dat zijn meeste gebruikers en licentieproducenten Australië en Maleisië zijn. Oostenrijk komt pas op de derde plaats. In 2020 vierde de Australische AUG de 35e verjaardag vanzijn invoering in de bewapening.

SoArty’s role is to deliver individual training, nested in the Combined Arms environment, in Joint Fires & Effects, Surveillance and Target Acquisition, and Air and Missile Defence in order to build and sustain Australia’s best practice... more

SoArty’s role is to deliver individual training, nested in the Combined Arms environment, in Joint Fires & Effects, Surveillance and Target Acquisition, and Air and Missile Defence in order to build and sustain Australia’s best practice in Joint Effects training, education and
doctrine. This is to support the generation of the Army’s foundation war fighting capabilities through high quality and safe individual
training in the Royal Regiment’s requisite capabilities.

The modernisation and capability expansion of the Army’s artillery will result in a ubiquitous land-based capacity to blend kinetic multi-domain capabilities into a unified effect. The Australian Defence Force seeks to alleviate the... more

The modernisation and capability expansion of the Army’s artillery will result in a ubiquitous land-based capacity to blend kinetic multi-domain capabilities into a unified effect. The Australian Defence Force seeks to alleviate the burden on the manoeuvre arm through the convergence of fires and effect across multiple domains. The expansion of longrange lethality announced in the 2020 Defence Strategic Update, will provide flexibility, responsiveness, and firepower that facilitates combined and joint operations to greater effect. Artillery traditionally completes its role in combination with armour and infantry; although it can and should be used to influence the battlespace via deep engagements and strikes.

Australia is among the most urbanized people in the world, but the "outback" - the desert and semi-arid areas of the center and the North of the continent - is rarely considered. While the Northern zone has always been considered the... more

Australia is among the most urbanized people in the world, but the "outback" - the desert and semi-arid areas of the center and the North of the continent - is rarely considered. While the Northern zone has always been considered the likely direction of foreign attack. Few recognize the Spacial Air Service established in 1957, based in the State of Western Australia - everything to the north is desert or arid in climate and conditions.