Cultural Heritage Law Research Papers (original) (raw)

In altro saggio[i] abbiamo spiegato le gravi ragioni di congiuntura economica internazionale, poi precipitate nell'Eurostat 2010[ii] e nella successiva firma del Fiscal Compact avvenuta nel marzo 2012[iii] che hanno condotto il legislatore ad alcune scelte[iv], giustificate sul piano dell'urgenza, ma forse non meglio ponderate dal punto di vista della costituzionalità e della coerenza con l'ordinamento giuridico tanto in termini di contrattualistica pubblica come in quelli della specificità normativa dei beni culturali.
Durante il governo Monti, nella fase successiva alla crisi finanziaria in particolare, il Governo affrontò il tema della delega fatta con la legge 31 dicembre 2009, n.196, recante legge di contabilità e finanza pubblica, e smi, ed in particolare l'articolo 30, commi 8 e 9, lettere a), b), c) e d), che delegava il Governo ad adottare uno o più decreti legislativi, al fine di garantire la razionalizzazione, la trasparenza, l'efficienza e l'efficacia delle procedure di spesa relative ai finanziamenti in conto capitale destinati alla realizzazione di opere pubbliche.
Il primo Decreto legislativo (il 228)[v] introdusse la valutazione delle opere finanziate con fondi statali sia prima, in fase di scelta, sia dopo l'esecuzione per verificare se una volta completata l'infrastruttura soddisfi effettivamente le esigenze.
Il secondo decreto (il 229) istituì una nuova banca dati delle amministrazioni pubbliche gestita direttamente dal ministero dell'Economia in cui confluiscono tutte le informazioni relative ai finanziamenti, agli appalti e allo stato di avanzamento delle opere finanziate con risorse statali. Con l'obiettivo, a regime, di far scattare il definanziamento automatico della quota statale sulle opere ferme.
Entrambi i provvedimenti sono stati ereditati dal Governo Berlusconi (e, in parte, portano ancora l'impronta dell'ex ministro dell'Economia, Giulio Tremonti), ma sono poi stati rielaborati, anche sulla base delle indicazioni delle commissioni parlamentari e della Conferenza unificata, con una proposta congiunta tra il presidente del Consiglio, Mario Monti, e il ministro per la Coesione territoriale, Fabrizio Barca.
Lo stesso Ministro Barca aveva da poco esitato il suo Rapporto Barca commissionato dalla Commissione Europea, con il quale veniva tracciata la via dello sviluppo locale “place-based” quale via per uscire dalla crisi mondiale: al centro stava la strategia di sviluppo locale basata sula valorizzazione delle risorse immobili sottoutilizzate e, prime tra esse, quelle culturali, oltre che una nuova politica per l'esclusione sociale[vi].
Il campo di applicazione del decreto legislativo 29 dicembre 2011, n. 228 riguarda le attività di valutazione ex ante ed ex post delle opere finanziate con risorse dei singoli Ministeri.
I Ministeri sono tenuti a svolgere le attività di valutazione ex ante ed ex post per le opere pubbliche e di pubblica utilità a valere sulle risorse iscritte negli stati di previsione dei singoli Ministeri, ovvero oggetto di trasferimento da parte degli stessi a favore di soggetti attuatori, pubblici o privati, in forza di specifica delega, ovvero anche per le opere pubbliche che prevedono emissione di garanzie a carico dello Stato.
La perdurante mancanza delle linee guida di settore (salvo di quelle del MIT al momento della stesura di questo saggio) - nonostante l’approvazione delle linee guida generali e dello schema tipo del “Documento pluriennale di pianificazione” con il Decreto del Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri 3.8.2012[vii] - rende praticamente inoperante buona parte del meccanismo[viii].
Oltre al DPCM 3.8.2012, un altro documento messo a disposizione dei Ministeri è il "Vademecum per l’applicazione del Modello di Linee Guida ai fini della predisposizione del Documento Pluriennale di Pianificazione ai sensi del D.Lgs. n. 228/2011", redatto dal Dipartimento per la Programmazione e il Coordinamento della Politica Economica della Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri (DIPE) e dal Dipartimento dello Sviluppo e della Coesione Economica (DPS) integrato a mezzo di un Addendum nel marzo 2015[ix].
Esso è stato redatto in esecuzione della previsione di cui al comma 3 dell'art. 8 del Dlgs 228/11: tale Vademecum costituisce, dunque, “modello di riferimento per la redazione da parte dei Ministeri delle linee guida”.

Die (österreichische) archäologische Denkmalpflege befindet sich in einer schweren Krise: das ursprünglich 1923 erstmals erlassene und seither nur unwesentlich novellierte Denkmalschutzgesetz (DMSG) ist hochgradig veraltet und genügt modernen denkmalpflegerischen und wissenschaftlich-archäologischen Erfordernissen nicht mehr. Als reaktives Gesetz beruht das DMSG in erster Linie auf dem traditionellen Schutzlistenprinzip; im Bereich der archäologischen Denkmalpflege ergänzt um eine Meldepflicht für Zufallsfunde und damit verbundene, kurzfristige Arbeitseinstellungspflichten bei der zufälligen Entdeckung sogenannter "Bodendenkmale". Das war 1923, als selbst Baugruben noch mehrheitlich von Arbeitern händisch mit der Spitzhacke und Schaufel ausgehoben wurden, durchaus adäquat, weil allfällig durch Bauarbeiten betroffene archäologische Denkmale dabei unweigerlich auffielen und daher - als Zufallsfunde - geschützt waren. Heute hingegen sind Bau-, Land- und Forstwirtschaft durchgehend maschinisiert und industrialisiert und Zufallsfunde archäologischer Denkmale kommen daher bei bodenverändernden Arbeiten so gut wie gar nicht mehr vor, weil allfällig vorhandene archäologische Denkmale von den Arbeitern einfach nicht bemerkt werden. Es bedarf daher heute eines präventiven archäologischen Denkmalschutzes, bei dem vorausschauend vor bodenverändernden Arbeiten nach archäologischen Überresten gesucht und diese erforderlichenfalls vor Beginn der Erdarbeiten wissenschaftlich erforscht (d.h. ausgegraben) werden. Das DMSG und insbesondere seine Auslegung durch die für seinen Vollzug verantwortliche Behörde, das Bundesdenkmalamt, behindern eine derartige, moderne präventive archäologische Denkmalpflege massiv. Stattdessen versucht die Behörde mittels des inzwischen untauglichen Gesetzes einen totalen Denkmalschutz zu erreichen, der dem explizit ausgedrückten Willen des Gesetzgebers diametral widerspricht und betreibt somit rechtswidrige Denkmalpflege.

- by Raimund Karl
- •
- Archaeology, Cultural Heritage, Heritage Studies, Cultural Heritage Conservation

The article discusses the representation and presentation of burial mounds in western Norway, and the effects caused by legal precautions, with special reference to the rural district of Etne, in the southern part of Hordaland. The legislation protecting ancient monuments, approved by the Parliament in 1905, had an unintended negative effect on people’s willingness to report new archaeological finds. Monuments older than the Reformation (1536/37) obtained automatically legal protection, and the State declared ownership to older finds. Earlier farmers could sell their finds on a «free» antique-market, with museums as buyers. Between 1860–1950, reorganisation and major changes took place in the Norwegian countryside, in terms of enclosure, new cultivation techniques, and extensive clearance of new land. Around 40% of the infields in western Norway in 1948 were enclosed after 1905. This development, in combination with the new law, generated a practice where monuments were removed secretly, as well as to avoid legal protection. Such newly cleared and enclosed areas might therefore be heavily underrepresented in the archaeological record, since systematic recording started at a much later stage, around 1950. This insight of the indirect and negative side effects of the law should be taken into consideration when dealing with patterns of distribution of burial monuments in particular, for instance in analyses of prehistoric settlements.

- by Frode Iversen
- •
- History, Archaeology, Historical Archaeology, Cultural Heritage

Cultural objects have a protected status on account of their intangible value, as symbols of an identity. This has been so since the early days of international law, and today there is an extensive legal framework that ensures this protection. Yet, when it comes to claims by former owners to items such as Nazi-looted art, colonial booty, or more recently looted antiquities, the situation is less straightforward. On the one hand, such
claims are often not supported by positive law at all. On the other hand, non-binding regulations urge present possessors to find `just' solutions to claims – not as a legal obligation but as a matter of morality. This raises a fundamental question: if we believe that the application of the law leads to injustice, is it not time to change the way the law is applied?
This study explores how cross-border claims to cultural objects fit in the wider legal framework, and where blind spots or clashes occur. The overall aim of this dissertation is to identify new directions that can help further develop this field, with the ultimate aim of fostering just solutions.

- by Evelien Campfens
- •
- Cultural Heritage, Human Rights Law, International Law, Cultural Heritage Law

From time immemorial, crimes against cultural heritage have always been frowned at and anyone who decides to sell these ‘sacred objects’ will be jeered at. Only the so called ‘outcasts’ in the family or community dared to dabble into the illegal sale of cultural objects. Over the years, trade in cultural objects has become lucrative. Attempts have been made in the Nigerian laws to ensure that items of our cultural heritage do not leave the shores of the country illegally by penalizing certain behaviors in relation to cultural objects. This article takes a cursory look at the impact of heritage crimes nationally and globally and considers if the legislation in Nigeria has been able to adequately put the situation under control thereby achieving the aims of sentencing.

- by Afolasade A Adewumi and +1
- •
- Criminal Law, Cultural Heritage Law

The paper "ΚΡΙΤΗΡΙΑ ΚΑΤΑΤΑΞΕΩΣ ΕΝΟΣ ΕΡΓΟΥ ΩΣ ΠΡΟΣΤΑΤΕΥΟΜΕΝΟΥ ΣΤΗΝ ΕΛΛΑΔΑ(1993)" ["CRITERIA FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF A WORK AS PROTECTED IN GREECE (1993)"] is a brief reference of the legislation in force in 1993 for the protection of cultural heritage works in Greece. In Greece there are two systems of protection: firstly, the "antiquitatis modo gratia" rule, i.e. works dated before 1830, the protection is provided ipso jure, works prior to 1453 are also state property / secondly, the classification rule, i.e. works and monuments or sites dated after 1830, public or private, are protected only after being classified as protected through a ministerial decision. Living creator movable works have not been classified as protected up today.
The paper has been published in French, see: " GRÈCE. Sur quels critères se base–t-on et à partir de quel moment considère-t-on qu` une oeuvre est dite " classée " ? Ces critères peuvent-ils se reporter sur une oeuvre contemporaine? ", in: ENVIRONNEMENTALE 6 – 9, L’ ART URBAINE DANS L` EUROPE DES DOUZE. Dossier des recherches, [Institut Superieur pour l’ Etude du Langage Plastique, Bruxelles 1993, 32/ 132.

Análisis sobre la Ley de Excavaciones y Antigüedades de 1911 y su normativa de desarrollo

- by Ana Yañez
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- Cultural Heritage, Historiography, Cultural Heritage Law, Patrimonio Cultural
- by Leonardo Miucci
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- Cultural Heritage, Contemporary Art, Cultural Heritage Law

The paper presents a brief summary of the evolution of Indigenous cultural heritage legislation, with a particular focus on Victoria. Using a quantitative textual analytical model adapted from comparative law and elsewhere, the trajectory of these laws are mapped through time. The results demonstrate an increasing overall strength in Australian cultural heritage legislation and a relationship between events in broader Aboriginal affairs and improvements in cultural heritage law. More specifically, in some jurisdictions, such as Victoria, the results also demonstrate slowly increasing Aboriginal power to determine cultural heritage outcomes. It is postulated that this increasing power engenders a cultural ‘thirdspace’ within which new cultural heritage management objectives, methods and outcomes will continue to drive a ‘hybridisation’ of cultural heritage laws — Aboriginal approaches to cultural heritage management enshrined within the context of the Western legal system. This emergent hybridisation is interpreted as an indicator or symptom of the decolonisation or trans-colonisation of the mind within Western legal systems.

- by Jamin Moon
- •
- Archaeology, Cultural Heritage Law, Cultural Heritage Management

In Spain, the birth of interest in the nation's industrial heritage dates from the 1980s and occurred alongside the process of deindustrialization. Policies concerning derelict industrial sites have shifted gradually from destruction to preservation, rehabilitation, and enhancement, and industrial heritage enhancement projects are now widespread in the country. However, a clear mismatching has arisen between institutional and academic initiatives and local communities, which exhibit widespread disinterest in or even rejection of industrial remains. This problematic situation can be related to the utilization of industrial heritage as an economic resource without paying much attention to its connections with memory and identity. Also, the mismatching is due to a positivist approach to industrial heritage whereby the monument and the museum are prioritized. We argue that projects which consider industrial remains as part of cultural landscapes might shorten the gap between the institutional and economic side of industrial heritage and its identity-building and popular facets.

- by Paz Benito del Pozo and +1
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- Human Geography, Cultural Geography, Historical Geography, Space Sciences

Cultural goods are priced possessions. They have countries or places of origin. They relate to people’s past and reflect their identity.
Political instability, socioeconomic challenges as well as demands for items of arts amongst others, have motivated the exportation of cultural goods from their places of origin, which include both developing and developed nations even though the developing ones are far more affected.
Nigeria as a country has its own share of the challenges that are presented by illegal exportation of her cultural patrimony. It is therefore needful to have appropriate mechanisms put in place to ensure that these irreplaceable goods are not lost.
This paper critiques the nigerian legal framework for the protection of her cultural goods from illicit exportation. It further analyses and considers Nigeria’s pre and post independence legislation including the prevailing National Commission for Museums and Monuments (NCMM) Act and their adequacy in this regard. The paper thereafter makes necessary recommendations for a way forward towards ensuring that an appropriate legal framework is installed to safeguard the Nigerian cultural goods against abuse by way of uncontrolled handling and exportation.

- by Afolasade A Adewumi
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- Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage Law, Nigerian Legal System

La tesi di dottorato qui pubblicata, frutto delle ricerche condotte dall'autore nel corso del XXIV ciclo -primo del DRASD -è stata discussa il 16 febbraio 2012 e valutata con giudizio "molto positivo" dalla Commissione (composta dai professori Guido Meloni, Giorgio Grasso e Vincenzo Salvatore Gonario Satta), secondo la quale le ricerche "presentano spunti originali anche alla luce del caso studio presentato". Già la presentazione del tutor, peraltro, aveva evidenziato che lo studio "si segnala per l'originale tentativo di ridiscussione critica di alcune questioni comunemente trascurate dalla dottrina".

The destruction of cultural property in times of war is an alarming issue. In spite of the efforts made by the international community to fight this deplorable phenomenon, the reported cases of incidental/intentional damages against cultural property are still numerous. This article retraces some of the most dramatic cases over the last twenty-five years in order to identify the root causes of the destruction of cultural property in the event of armed conflict as well as to assess the core limits of the related international legal system.

- by Alberto Frigerio
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- Cultural Heritage, Conflict, Cultural Heritage Law, Armed Conflict
- by Pietro Petraroia
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- Cultural History, Cultural Studies, Museum Studies, Cultural Heritage
- by Alexander Bauer
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- Museum Studies, Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage Law, Art Law
- by Joan Breton Connelly
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- Religion, Mythology And Folklore, History, Cultural History

An article examining some of the legal matters involving the Aboutaam Brothers, owners of Phoenix Ancient Art.

- by Leila Amineddoleh
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- Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage Law, Art Law, Illicit Antiquities Trade

Catatan kritis ini dimulai dengan pertanyaan-pertanyaan disertai dengan jawaban maupun pernyataan-pernyataan sehingga memudahkan kita semua untuk “membongkar” pemahaman-pemahaman dan tindakan manipulatif demi melanggengkan Revitalisasi Pusat Kesenian Jakarta Taman Ismail Marzuki (PKJ-TIM) yang tidak melibatkan publik seniman dalam proses perencanaannya. Pada akhirnya dalam pelaksanaannya terdapat sejumlah masalah, termasuk menerjemahkan konsep revitalisasi dari kegiatan perencanaan dengan pelaksanaan. Revitalisasi yang seharusnya 'memvitalkan' kembali fisik bangunan yang ada dengan cara memperbaiki dan menambahkan jika belum ada, namun kenyataannya menghancurkan bangunan yang ada, bahkan dianggap memiliki nilai sejarah tinggi bagi para seniman. Demikian Revitalisasi non-fisik dalam prakteknya ditujukan pada kegiatan komersialisasi yang bertolak belakang dengan Marwah Kesenian.

- by Jhohannes Marbun
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- Cultural Studies, Art History, Cultural Policy, Cultural Heritage

The paper (power point) "The legal framework for the operation of museums and archaeological sites" is the design of a course that took place in the Interdepartmental Programme of Postgraduate Studies "Museum Studies" at the University of Athens in 2014. This refers to and analyzes the provisions of laws etc. that regulate issues such as the working hours of the museums, the working hours, as well as the general and special tasks of the museum guardians, the extraordinary operation of the museums and the archaeological sites, the entry tickets, the days of free entry for the public, the categories of persons entitled free entrance, order and vigilance measures in museums, the items sold in the Museum's shops and the relevant resources of the Archaeological Receipts Fund, subjects concerning photographic and filming in museums and archaeological sites, subjects of performances and events in them, and , after all, the institution of cultural sponsorship in Greece.

This article considers the extent to which civil and criminal law in Singapore deters the unlawful removal of cultural objects from the possession of private owners, art galleries and museums, or from archaeological sites, and provides redress to victims. Given Singapore's position as the crossroads of Asia, the law must be able to cope with the flow of objects in and out of the country. The law is currently deficient as it is not tailored to deal with issues concerning cultural heritage, and needs to be reformed in several respects. There are sound reasons for a modern State like Singapore to enact legislation, as well as to enter into regional and international treaties, to protect its national heritage and to promote global co-operation in opposing the illicit trade in unlawfully removed cultural objects.

- by Jack Tsen-Ta Lee
- •
- Cultural Heritage Law, Art Law, Art and the Law, Singapore law

Disputes over illicitly traded cultural property are frequently of cross-border nature. That being so, restitution claims are normally directed to the courts in the place where the misappropriated objects are found. This means that the success of the title claims of States, communities, and individuals hinge on the interpretation and application of the private international law rules of that jurisdiction. Regrettably, such rules may have unpredictable if not detrimental effects on the resolution of cultural property-related disputes. Not only are the rules of private international law different from State to State, but they are also not tailored to lawsuits dealing with the delicate question of combatting illicit trade of cultural property. The purpose of this article is threefold. First, it examines some of the private international law rules that may jeopardise the efforts deployed by States and international organisations to protect cultural objects from illicit trafficking. Second, it discusses a number of judicial decisions in order to demonstrate that the implementation of such rules at the national level is gradually evolving towards greater protection of cultural property. Third, this article posits that the culture-sensitive legislative and judicial developments of recent times in this legal field might ultimately lead to the development of a lex culturalis, i.e. a composite body of rules aiming to affirm legal uniformity by bringing the uniqueness of cultural property to the fore and by excluding the application to cultural property-related disputes of ordinary private international law rules.

- by Alessandro Chechi
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- Private International Law, Cultural Heritage Law
- by Jon Daehnke
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- Native American Studies, Cultural Heritage Law, Repatriation (Archaeology), NAGPRA
- by EMIL L SAMANIEGO
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- Cultural Heritage, Heritage Studies, Philosophy Of Law, Culture

Schoolbook on the importance of cultural heritage for civic education.
Among the topics: the importance of cultural diversity; cultural heritage in wartime, looting and destruction; opportunities and risks of reconstruction; cultural heritage and terrorism; clandestine excavation; the debate on museums' definition and role; ICOM Code of Ethics for Museums; restitutions and repatriation of ritual objects and human remains.

- by Elena Franchi
- •
- Cultural Studies, Museum Studies, Cultural Heritage, War Studies

As private sector archaeologists in Ireland struggle to cope with the negative effects of the recent development meltdown, this article analyses the relationship between the ‘developer pays’ principle and the ongoing problem of... more

- by Paolo Ciuchini
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- Archaeology, Cultural Heritage, Heritage Studies, Cultural Heritage Conservation

The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volurne.

- by Thijs J Maarleveld
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- Cultural Heritage Law, Underwater Archaeology

This paper aims to examine the Italian legislation on archaeological research, which requires a special permit (called “concession” – “concessione” in Italian) by the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities. We will explore the history of the legislation on this permit and the current policy for issuing it, showing how the State policy led to a progressive exclusion of amateurs from this field. We will finally highlight the lack of evidence-based policy making in Italy, and call for a multi-stakeholder perspective in research design.

The aim of this paper is to present a history of research regarding
protocols of treasure hunting within the geographical area of Șureanu Mountains-Transylvania. The chronological timeframe covers the Middle Ages throughout the beginning of the XXI century, when archaeological poaching gained more perspective once metal detectors started to be used. Such a descent is necessary in order to determine if we
can consider treasure hunting regulations as predecessors of archaeological poaching.
Therefore, this study tries to respond to the following questions: in what terms can we associate treasure hunting regulations as being a predecessor factor for archaeological poaching? Can we attribute any type of linkage between the treasuries discovered with metal detectors and the ones unearthed at the beginning of the XIX century in mentioned area? What are the differences and similarities between the act of treasure hunting and archaeological poaching? What are the limitations in discussing the safety of these artefacts before the XX century?

- by Claudiu Purdea
- •
- Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage Law

Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 5/1 (2017): 109-115.

The Aesthetics of Law.
Today the aesthetics of law constitutes a fifth branch of legal philosophy – alongside the ontology of law, the epistemology of law, legal logic, and legal ethics. The aesthetics of law is not only exceptionally interesting in itself, but also important in legal practice; further, the scope of its effects in jurisprudence is broader than might appear at first to be the case. There is an extraordinary number of traces of the aesthetics of law – something that becomes apparent as soon as we read successive books and articles with our eyes open for such elements in order to make note of them, and subsequently interpret and develop them. The aim of this study is, on one hand, clearly to set out what has been written on the aesthetics of law, and, on the other hand, to propose a program for further research. This principle makes it possible to create a “foundation,” upon which further aesthetic-legal discussion can arise, a discussion that other researchers – I hope – may join. The results of further study of the aesthetics of law may be of practical use in creating and applying the law, although not only here, since such research relates to a very important issue, which is the formation of the legal consciousness of those whom the law addresses and of their attitudes toward the law.

- by Kamil Zeidler
- •
- Aesthetics, Philosophy Of Law, Law and Literature, Cultural Heritage Law

The Croatian national report on the legal aspects of cultural heritage is written in the context of the HEURIGHT project – the Right to Cultural Heritage, its Protection and Enforcement through Cooperation in the European Union. This report offers an overview of the Croatian legal framework for cultural heritage, and researches into certain specific issues within this broad field. Throughout the pages various legal sources relevant for this purpose are being made reference to and analyzed where appropriate, including the constitutional provisions, multilateral and bilateral international treaties, EU legal sources and their implementation into the Croatian legal system, national laws and regulations (statutory provisions and by-laws) and pertinent case law of courts and administrative authorities.

- by Ivana Kunda
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- Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage Law, Croatia, Intengible Cultural Heritage

Il numero 6/2020 della Rivista di Arte antica e contemporanea, presenta un dibattito sull’arte negli attuali scenari di guerra. Intervengono: Paolo Brusasco (Docente di Archeologia e Storia dell’Arte del Vicino Oriente, Università di Genova, Direttore della Missione Assiria), Massimo Carcione (Head Resercher del Maniscalco Center e direttore del Centro di Documentazione della Benedicta), Silvia Chiodi (Dirigente di ricerca, CNR), Franco D’Agostino (Docente di Assiriologia, Università di Roma La Sapienza, e Direttore degli scavi di Abu Tbeirah, Iraq), Michela De Berardin (Co-direttrice di The Journal of Cultural Heritage Crime), Elena Franchi (Storica dell’arte, ricercatrice, giornalista), Manlio Frigo (Ordinario di Diritto Internazionale, Università di Milano), Edoardo Greppi (Ordinario di Diritto Internazionale, Università di Torino), Marco Iamoni (Docente di Storia del Vicino Oriente e di Archeologia del Vicino Oriente e del Mediterraneo, Università di Udine; vicedirettore del Progetto Archeologico “Terra di Ninive”), Simona Maggiorelli (giornalista, direttrice di Left), Federica Mucci (Associato di Diritto Internazionale, Università di Roma Tor Vergata), Davide Nadali (Associato di Archeologia e storia dell’arte del Vicino Oriente antico, Università di Roma La Sapienza), Luca Peyronel (Ordinario di Archeologia e storia dell’arte del Vicino Oriente antico, Università di Milano; Direttore del Progetto Archeologico Italiano nella Piana di Erbil), Christopher Prescott (Archeologo, Università di Oslo; Direttore dell’Istituto Norvegese in Roma).

This paper uses Iraq as a case study via which to begin to investigate the complex inter-relationships between cultural and historical destruction on the one hand and identity politics and sectarian violence on the other. This paper argues that the unprecedented scale and magnitude of the destruction of Iraq’s cultural history has played a part in eroding the various intersecting and overlapping versions of identity politics in Iraq. In turn, this has provided fertile ground for sectarians to plant the seeds of their own narrow and deadly ideologies. This has brought about the rise of ethno-religious based violence and seen a series of bloody and protracted conflicts emerge between previously peaceful and compatible factions. What is of particular interest here is that much of the cultural and historical landscape that has been destroyed since 2003 had come to play an important role in developing the notion of a collective Iraqi identity as promulgated by the Baathist regime. For example, under the rule of Saddam Hussein, Iraq underwent an extensive nation building campaign consisting of projects as diverse as the reconstruction of key archaeological sites, a reinvigoration of traditional Iraqi folklore and festivals, and the extension of state libraries and museums. While identity politics was and remains a complex and contested field in Iraq, the nation’s cultural history was central to the formation of a variety of different identities in Iraq and garnered at least some degree of social cohesion and inclusion. The chapter begins by briefly detailing the role that Iraq’s cultural heritage has played in building national identity and social cohesion since 1968. It then catalogues some of the more significant cultural and historical destruction that has occurred in Iraq since 2003. Finally, this paper tentatively examines the extent to which this destruction has had implications for the rise of ethno-religious sectarianism and violence.

- by Benjamin Isakhan
- •
- Military History, Cultural History, Cultural Studies, Political Sociology

IT [english below]:Dalla distruzione dei beni culturali nel vicino oriente, alle lotte per il recupero e la risignificazione dei beni sottratti durante il periodo coloniale, i referenti materiali della memoria culturale e i modi di vita "tradizionali" sono al centro del dibattito sulla salvaguardia dell'identità dei popoli nella globalizzazione. Si parte dalla risposta della comunità internazionale ai recenti fatti in Siria e Iraq per analizzare il consenso intorno all'ingiustificabilità della distruzione del patrimonio in caso di conflitto armato e dunque dell'affermazione dell'interesse dell'umanità nel proteggere queste manifestazioni dell'identità culturale dei popoli. Quindi, si ricostruiscono tappe e discorsi che hanno reso possibile tale interesse dell'umanità: si considera il patrimonio come "questione di Stato", come "questione dell'umanità" e come "questione d'identità". La complessità di questa terza accezione e il suo intersecarsi e opporsi alle altre due dimensioni individuate fanno sì che sia necessario analizzare in profondità l'aspetto relazionale del patrimonio culturale in quanto pratica sociale situata in diversi e asimmetrici contesti socio-politici. Così si evidenziano tre processi contemporanei e interconnessi: il rinnovato interesse verso i diritti culturali e l'emergere del paradigma dello sviluppo umano e sostenibile; il progressivo riconoscimento del valore collettivo dei diritti culturali e della necessità di applicare una visione culturalizzata dei diritti umani in generale; l'affermarsi dei movimenti sociali indigeni come soggetti protagonisti delle politiche internazionali e nazionali che riguardano queste popolazioni. A partire dalla soggettività indigena si traccia, infine, una proposta di cosmopolitismo vernacolare in cui dalle altre storie dei diritti umani, quelle delle sofferenze oppresse, silenziate e complementari alla retorica dominante, sia possibile scorgere prospettive di sviluppo e autodeterminazione centrate negli interessi dei popoli e nel rispetto delle differenze.
EN: From cultural heritage destruction in the Near East, to the struggles for the return and the resignification of properties taken away throughout the colonial period, the material references of the cultural memory and the “traditional” ways of life are at the centre of the current debate on safeguarding peoples' cultural identity in globalization. This work starts with the response of the international community to the recent emergency in Syria and Iraq in order to consider the consent around the unlawful destruction of heritage in the case of armed conflict. So that a general concern for humanity can be traced in the protection of those manifestations of peoples' cultural identity. Therefore, it is necessary to review the emergence of this general interest for humanity by analysing the contexts and the discourses that made it possible. Three dimensions of heritage have been taken into account: “heritage as a matter of State”, “heritage as a matter of humanity”, “heritage as a matter of identity”. The complexity of the former sense and its overlapping with the others mean that it is required to examine the extent by which cultural heritage is a social practice embedded within different and asymmetrical political contexts. Thereby, three contemporary ad mutually influenced processes are highlighted: the growing concern for cultural rights and the affirmation of human and sustainable development paradigm; the progressive acknowledgement of the collective value of cultural rights and the necessity of a cultural justiciability of human rights in general; the rise of indigenous social movements as subject of international and national politics regarding such people. Finally, on the basis of indigenous subjectivity we can draw a proposal for a vernacular cosmopolitanism insofar the other histories of human rights, those of the oppressed and silenced sufferings but still complementary to the dominant rhetoric, they may open unplanned possibilities to behold perspectives of development and self-determination focused on peoples' concerns and on respecting cultural differences.

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE LAW ON THE PROTECTION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE – A PROPOSAL FOR A CATALOGUE.
Among the whole set of legal norms, norms that are legal principles are of particular importance. The attribute that gives a legal norm the status of a principle of law is its importance for the legal system. An important division of legal principles introduces a distinction between the principles formulated directly in the legal text (explicit principles), the principles interpreted from the legal text, although not explicitly expressed in the legal text (implicit principles), and the principles of law not expressed in legislative acts but constituting an element of legal culture (second-degree implicit principles). The law on the protection of cultural heritage is now considered to be a comprehensive branch of law, and one of the basic criteria for separating a branch of law is the possession of own principles of law, a criterion which is satisfied in relation to the catalogue of principles presented in the article, with the guiding principle being the principle of cultural heritage protection interpreted under Articles 5 and 6 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland. Among other principles of the law on the protection of cultural heritage the following can be distinguished in particular (with the reservation that the catalogue presented in the article has an open character): the principle of access to monuments, the principle of social utility of monuments, the principle of access to information, the principle of control over the state of preservation of monuments, the principle of integrity of the monument, the principle of sustainable development, the principle of cultural heritage management, the principle of change in the usable value of the cultural heritage over time, the principle of financing by the monument holder, the principle of financing from public resources, principles of property protection, the principle of proportionality, the state control over the trading in monuments and the principle of the control of exporting historic objects abroad.

- by Tomáš Michalík
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- Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage Law, Castles, History of Slovakia

This Chapter aims to comprehensively describe the system of heritage protection in Bahrain. The reader may find a descriptive information about various legal sources and critical analysis of the de facto heritage protection. The Chapter begins with a short introduction to the cultural patrimony in the Kingdom. The following part describes the domestic
and international legal sources that contain provisions regulating the protection of heritage. The second part informs about the practice and regular work in the field of heritage preservation in Bahrain. The third part highlights the main challenges to cultural heritage including the regulatory framework shortcomings and development pressure. In the concluding section, the author suggests certain measures that should be applied in order to improve the heritage protection system.

- by Michal Wosinski
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- Cultural Heritage Law, Art Law, Bahrain

The Italian legislator, for reasons of budget constraints imposed by the Fiscal Compact and by the recent Constitutional reform, since one year has been proceeding to abolish the legislative and regulatory provisions regarding the application of concessions, PPPs and project finance in the cultural heritage sector. The new normative tool for private-public partnership is the “social partnership”, provided for in the Public Contracts Code, and the "special forms of partnership", provided for in the cultural part of the Public Contracts Code as well as in the new Third Sector Code. These are the new opportunities for the involvement of privates in strategic plans for cultural development and valorization agreements as referred to in Articles 112 and 115 of the Code of Cultural Heritage.
The private-public valorization of culture, under the new national legislation and International and European laws is in a sort of "socialization progress".
From the concept of culture as a new social right comes a big news in Italian legislative order. In addition to the constitutional provisions for the protection of landscape and historical and artistic patrimony of the Nation, new constitutional obligations should also be added to the protection of the "essential levels of performances for social and civil rights" as referred to in Article120, paragraph 2 of the Constitution. The social value given to supply of cultural services to citizens should correspond to an equal social value given to the demand from citizens, i.e. a "right to cultural fruition" as protected by art .1 of the Code of Cultural Heritage.
Shall exist a right to the fruition of culture and art as an "essential level of performance" which the Republic has to provide citizens?
The new creative opportunities in a “Culture 3.0. digital world” will provide new answers in terms of participation and place-based approach?