Environmental Epidemiology Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

A novel screening tool method to select chemicals for exposure reconstruction was developed and validated using data generated for a hypothetical work force consisting of 10 job classes (ranging from 10,000 to 55,000 person-years). To achieve the required efficiency in the reconstruction of exposures, this method treats each product (defined as a part or process) as an "exposure." Exposure to 10 products was assigned to each job class at random using a computer program. The expected rate of a given disease was assumed to be constant throughout the job classes (tested at five levels), and the observed numbers of cases in the job classes were generated based on neutral deviations from background with error rates of ± 1% to 16%. One job class was assigned to be the "excess-class" and the number of cases in that class was increased by a factor of Q, which was set at levels that ranged from 1.25 to 5. All of the experimental conditions were replicated 10,000 times in a Monte Carlo scheme for scenarios in which each job class had been designated as the excess-class. Following each run, significant excesses (if any) were determined using a modified version of Daniel's method, and the percentages of false positive and false negative identifications were tabulated. We found that the sensitivity of the method is largely dependent on the relative risk (Q) associated with the exposure. Specifically, the results indicate that as the relative risk increases, the percentage of false negative identifications of the excesses is reduced to nearly 0% and the percentage of false positive identifications is approximately 13%. When applied to real data, should an association be detected between any product and a health outcome, this preliminary analysis will yield a reduced "product" set that can then be investigated in detail and the agents involved considered further for quantitative reconstruction. The proposed method is highly efficient and has the potential to benefit future complex exposure reconstruction studies, particularly when there is no predetermined exposure associated with an observed increase in a cause-specific health end point. [Supplementary materials are available for this article. Go to the publisher's online edition of the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene for the following free supplemental resource: a Word file containing a table giving the percentages of false positive and false negative identifications.

- by
- •
- Algorithms, Environmental Epidemiology, Monte Carlo, Environmental Monitoring

Ecological regression studies are widely used to examine relationships between disease rates for small geographical areas and exposure to environmental risk factors. The raw data for such studies, including disease cases, environmental pollution concentrations and the reference population at risk, are typically measured at a variety of levels of spatial aggregation but are accumulated to a common geographical scale to facilitate statistical analysis. In this traditional approach heterogeneous exposure distributions within the aggregate areas may lead to biased inference, while individual attributes such as age, gender and smoking habits must either be summarized to provide area level covariate values or used to stratify the analysis. This paper presents a spatial regression analysis of the effect of traffic pollution on respiratory disorders in children. The analysis features data measured at disparate, non-nested scales, including spatially varying covariates, latent spatially varying risk factors, and case-specific individual attributes. The problem of disparate discretizations is overcome by relating all spatially varying quantities to a continuous underlying random field model. Case-specific individual attributes are accommodated by treating cases as a marked point process. Inference in these hierarchical Poisson/gamma models is based on simulated samples drawn from Bayesian posterior distributions, using Markov chain Monte Carlo methods with data augmentation.

- by Robert Wolpert
- •
- Econometrics, Statistics, Environmental Epidemiology, Statistical Analysis
- by Jon Wakefield
- •
- Econometrics, Statistics, Environmental Epidemiology, Regression Analysis

This study aimed to evaluate self-reported exposure to the Ringwood Mines/Landfill Superfund Site in relation to chronic health outcomes among members of the Ramapough Lunaape Turtle Clan nation and other local residents of Ringwood, New Jersey. Community surveys on personal exposure to the nearby Superfund site, self-reported health conditions, and demographics were conducted with 187 members of the Ramapough Lunaape Turtle Clan Nation and non-Native Americans residing in Ringwood, New Jersey from December 2015 to October 2016. Multiple logistic regression was performed to assess the association between ethnicity and a Superfund site exposure score developed for this study, as well as between exposure score and several chronic health conditions. Native Americans were 13.84 times (OR 13.84; 95% CI 4.32, 44.37) more likely to face exposure opportunities to Superfund sites as compared to non-Native Americans in the same New Jersey borough. For the entire surveyed cohort, increased Superfund site exposure routes was significantly associated with bronchitis (OR 4.10; 95% CI 1.18, 14.23). When the analyses were restricted to Native Americans, the association between self-reported Superfund site exposure and bronchitis remained significant (OR 17.42; 95% CI 1.99, 152.45). Moreover, the association between greater exposure score and asthma in this same population also reached statistical significance (OR 6.16; 95% CI 1.38, 27.49). This pilot study demonstrated a significant association between being a Ringwood resident of Native American ethnicity and self-declared opportunities for Superfund site exposure. It also showed a strong association between self-reported Superfund site exposure and the prevalence of bronchitis and asthma.

- by Gabriella Meltzer and +3
- •
- Native American Studies, Environmental Epidemiology, Environmental Justice

Background E’ ormai accertato che l’inquinamento ambientale è causa di patologia nelle popolazioni esposte. Recenti studi, effettuati nell’ambito del progetto Aphekom sulla popolazione europea di 25 città, hanno evidenziato come vari stati europei superino i valori limite della concentrazione di particolato stabiliti dal WHO. Tale informazione mette in luce l’esistenza di un margine di miglioramento supportato da studi sempre nuovi sulla qualità dell’aria. Obiettivi Utilizzando gli strumenti proposti dal progetto Aphekom si vuole evidenziare come, anche con riferimento alla popolazione di Ancona, un intervento di politica ambientale potrebbe portare a rilevanti benefici sia sanitari che economici. Materiali e metodi I dati ambientali sono stati reperiti tramite le pubblicazioni ufficiali disponibili in rete sulla qualità dell’aria registrata presso la centralina Cittadella di Ancona negli anni 2009-2011. Lo studio ha valutato gli impatti a breve e a lungo termine delle sole polveri ...

- by Mauro Mariottini
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology

Indoor air quality (IAQ) has been the object of several studies due to its adverse health effects on children. Methods. A cross-sectional comparative study was carried out among Malay children in Balakong (2 studied preschools) and Bangi (2 comparative preschools), Selangor, with the aims of determining IAQ and its association with respiratory health. 61 and 50 children aged 5-6 years were selected as studied and comparative groups. A questionnaire was used to obtain an exposure history and respiratory symptoms. Lung function test was carried out. IAQ parameters obtained include indoor concentration of particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2), temperature, air velocity (AV), and relative humidity. Results. There was a significant difference between IAQ in studied and comparative preschools for all parameters measured (í µí± < 0.001) except for CO 2 and AV. Studied preschools had higher PM and CO concentration. FVC, FEV 1 , FVC% and FEV 1 % predicted values were significantly lower among studied group. Exposures to PM, VOCs, and CO were associated with wheezing. Conclusion. The finding concluded that exposures to poor IAQ might increase the risk of getting lung function abnormality and respiratory problems among study respondents.

- by Juliana Jalaludin
- •
- Air Quality, Environmental Epidemiology, Indoor Air Quality, Air pollution

Objectives: To investigate the accuracy and scientific validity of the current very low risk factor for hereditary diseases in humans following exposures to ionizing radiation adopted by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation and the International Commission on Radiological Protection. The value is based on experiments on mice due to reportedly absent effects in the Japanese atomic bomb (Abomb) survivors.
Methods: To review the published evidence for heritable effects after ionising radiation exposures particularly, but not restricted to, populations exposed to contamination from the Chernobyl accident and from atmospheric nuclear test fallout. To make a compilation of findings about early deaths, congenital malformations, Down’s syndrome, cancer
and other genetic effects observed in humans after the exposure of the parents. To also examine more closely the evidence from the Japanese A-bomb epidemiology and discuss its scientific validity.
Results Nearly all types of hereditary defects were found at doses as low as one to 10 mSv. We discuss the clash between the current risk model and these observations on the basis of biological mechanism and assumptions about linear relationships between dose and effect in neonatal and foetal epidemiology. The evidence supports a dose response relationship which is non-linear and is either biphasic or supralinear (hogs-back) and largely either saturates or falls above 10 mSv.
Conclusions: We conclude that the current risk model for heritable effects of radiation is unsafe. The dose response relationship is non-linear with the greatest effects at the lowest doses. Using Chernobyl data we derive an excess relative risk for all malformations of 1.0 per 10 mSv cumulative dose. The safety of the Japanese A-bomb epidemiology is argued to be both scientifically and philosophically questionable owing to errors in the choice of control groups, omission of internal exposure effects and assumptions about linear dose response.

Background: Previous research by the authors found evidence that up to 10% of particular household categories may be exposed to elevated carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations from poor quality gas appliance installations. The literature suggests certain neurological symptoms are linked to exposure to low levels of CO. This paper addresses the hypothesis that certain selfreported neurological symptoms experienced by a householder are linked to an estimate of their CO exposure.

- by Giovanni Leonardi
- •
- Neuroscience, Neurology, Environmental Epidemiology, Epidemiology

This paper discusses the principles of study design and related methodologic issues in environmental epidemiology. Emphasis is given to studies aimed at evaluating causal hypotheses regarding exposures to suspected health hazards. Following background sections on the quantitative objectives and methods of populationbased research, we present the major types of observational designs used in environmental epidemiology: first, the three basic designs involving the individual as the unit of analysis (i.e., cohort, crosssectional, and case-control studies) and a brief discussion of genetic studies for assessing gene-environment interactions; second, various ecologic designs involving the group or region as the unit of analysis. Ecologic designs are given special emphasis in this paper because of our lack of resources or inability to accurately measure environmental exposures in large numbers of individuals. The paper concludes with a section highlighting current design issues in environmental epidemiology and several recommendations for future work. --

- by Duncan Thomas
- •
- Genetics, Environmental Epidemiology, Research Design, Environmental Health

Os estudos apresentados neste livro – que geraram reconhecidas e valiosas contribuições no campo científico – possam trazer subsídios para o fortalecimento das políticas públicas de saneamento ambiental para o Brasil. No tocante às políticas, destaca-se o fornecimento de informações para gestores e financiadores dos sistemas de saneamento e de saúde, a serem utilizadas na definição de prioridades. Espera-se que outras oportunidades de avaliações independentes possam acompanhar o impacto de intervenções de saneamento sobre os níveis de saúde da população, reforçando a importância dessa política pública. No tocante aos aspectos científicos, ressalta-se o caráter desafiador de avaliar uma complexa intervenção sanitária em um ambiente social igualmente complexo, adotando-se estratégias e desenhos de investigação diversificados, além de métodos analíticos integradores dos níveis de realidade do indivíduo e do seu contexto. Destaca-se que o papel desta obra, como síntese da produção concreta de novos conhecimentos científicos, está expresso por relatórios técnicos, teses, dissertações e artigos apresentados em eventos ou publicados em revistas científicas de alto impacto, além de diversos e destacados prêmios recebidos no âmbito nacional e internacional por alunos, professores, pesquisadores, mestres e doutores envolvidos neste projeto. Por fim, nossos agradecimentos para as famílias que aceitaram participar deste estudo e acreditaram na importância social dos seus resultados. Neste sentido, esta obra pretende dar maior visibilidade, na língua mater, dos importantes resultados obtidos pelo Estado da Bahia na busca das Metas propostas para o Desenvolvimento do Milênio visando ao alcance de equidade em saneamento e saúde no
Brasil.

- by Rita Rego
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Environmental Impact Assessment

Demam Berdarah Dengue masih merupakan masalah kesehatan masyarakat, pada tahun 2010 Indonesia masih di urutan tertinggi kasus DBD di ASEAN, berbagai penelitian baik di dalam negeri maupun luar negeri berhasil dilakukan untuk menemukan alternatif pengendalian vektor Ae. aegypti tanpa pestisida, hasilnya cukup menggembirakan. Metode literatur bertujuan untuk mendapatkan ide dari hasil Mesocyclops penelitian sebagai kontrol biologis vektor DBD. Penelitian yang dilakukan di berbagai negara di dunia termasuk Indonesia (B2P2VRP) Salatiga)menyimpulkan bahwa peran Cyclops sebagai kontrol biologis terutama vektor nyamuk Aedes aegypti sangat dipercaya. Satu negara dapat mengatasi masalah DBD adalah Vietnam, sebagai mengeksploitasi hasil penelitian sebagai dasar untuk program kontrol Cyclops intervensi vektor dan peran optimal dari semua sektor publik dan swasta, serta masyarakat. Semoga Cyclops bisa menjadi salah satu alternatif dalam pengendalian vektor DBD nasional di Indonesia, karena harus memenuhi beberapa kriteria alternatif dalam pemecahan masalah demam berdarah.

- by malik saepudin
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology

Reviewing the results of environmental epidemiology, post-volcanic climatology, and environmental history, we focused exclusively on volcanic eruption-ENSO and ENSO-cholera connections in order to establish a hypothesis that large tropical and Northern Hemisphere volcanic eruptions trigger an environmentally driven cascade process via post-volcanic ENSO anomalies. This cascade process has tended historically to lead to cholera outbreaks in Bengal. To test our hypothesis, we set up a dataset from strong tropical and Northern Hemisphere volcanic events that forced the ENSO system, ENSO indices, and historical data for cholera outbreaks. Eight volcanic eruptions (≥ 3.3 W/m2) were accompanied within 2 years by El Niño events over the past 500 years. In case of the 19th–20th century period, all selected volcanic eruptions were accompanied by major cholera outbreaks in Bengal during the examined post-volcanic years. For the past 500 years, the likelihood for the occurrence of major post-volcanic cholera outbreaks was 75%.

- by Zsolt Pinke and +1
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Environmental History, Bengal, ENSO

IgE to alpha-gal poses a significant threat to public health. While eating meat may seem innocuous to most, if IgE to alpha-gal is present in a human at the time of consumption it can cause urticaria to delayed-onset anaphylaxis resulting in death. The primary vector of transmission, the Lone star tick (Ambylomma americanum), is prevalent in central and eastern parts of Virginia, and will continue to increase in number of intensity burgeoning the entire eastern half of the state in the near future. Considering habitat and land use, modeling predictive bite forecasting will result in a thorough analysis of the distribution of the alpha-gal vector, A. americanum in Virginian counties. Combined with IRB-approved subject research on the alpha-gal allergy, the aim is to identify a categorical projection of potential incidence of tick bites and IgE allergy acquisition. Results indicate that location of tick bites in relation to tick distribution does not directly correlate. It appears people typically travel west of their home locations to
where the ticks are most populated. These factors suggest the ticks are more prevalent in the same areas people are settling due to climate and habitat rather than population of people.

- by Dana R Carlson
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Food Allergy, Immunoglobulin E, IGE

A cross sectional cohort study was carried out of the population living downwind of and less than 3.5km from Trawsfynydd nuclear power station sited in Wales, UK. This station is cooled by, and discharges radionuclides to a lake, Llyn Trawsfyny-dd, which is significantly contaminated with radioactivity. Cancer numbers and populations were obtained through questionnaire and interview for the10-year period to 2005. Results showed that in the 3-years before the study was carried out, 2003-2005 and where completeness of data was most secure, there were significantly raised levels of cancer relative to England and Wales. Based on 490 males and 488 females the Standardised incidence ratios (SIR) for all ages were: All malignancy males 2.13 (obs: 22 exp: 10.5; 95%CI 1.34, 3.29; p<.002) All malignancy females 1.74 (obs 16, exp 9.2; CI 1.03, 2.92; p <0.05). Female breast 2.6 (obs 6, exp 2.3; CI 1.16, 5.79; p<0.03), Prostate 2.5 (obs5 exp 2.0; CI 1.01, 5.93; p <0.05), all leukemia 7.8 (obs 3, exp 0.38, p<0.007) all leukemia and lymphoma 6.5 (obs 4 exp 0.62, p<0.003), mesothelioma 18.0 (obs 2, exp 0.11, p<.005), pancreas 4.8 (obs 2 exp 0.42 p<.06). Cancer SIR were highest in the age group below 60 years in women where for breast cancer SIR was 4.9 (obs 5, exp 1.02; CI 2.02, 11.99; p< 0.004) There was an association with eating lake fish (RR = 2.1; p<0.04). Whilst owing to the structural problems associated with such studies caution should be exercised in quantitative interpretation, results show that they can be informative and that studies of adult cancer near nuclear facilities are likely to be more useful than studies of rare childhood cancer.

Objectives: To assess the temporal and spatial relationship of risk for total leukemia and AML (acute myelogenous leukemia) among community residents of an area in northeastern (NE) Pennsylvania (PA) affected by the Tranguch Gasoline Spill which occurred in the early 1990s. Methods: Standardized incidence ratios (SIR) were calculated for total leukemia and AML among 625 residents affected by the gasoline spill in relation to both PA and local county cancer incidence rates. The risk of total leukemia and AML among the gasoline exposed population was evaluated for the period prior to the spill, 1985-1989; during the time surrounding the spill, 1990-1994; and for a period subsequent to the spill, 1995-2001. Results: The incidence of total leukemia and AML was significantly elevated subsequent to the spill for the entire period 1990-2001 and was highest for the period 1995-2001, whether comparison was made to PA or local county leukemia rates. Based on comparison to PA rates, the SIRs for total leukemia and AML were 7.69 (95% CI¼ 1.58-22.46) and 11.54 (95% CI ¼2.38-33.69) for the period, respectively. Prior to the spill, 1985, and during the period of the spill, 1990-1994, no cases of leukemia were identified among the affected residents. Conclusions: These results suggest a possible association between chronic low level benzene exposure and increased risk of leukemia among residents of the Tranguch Spill Site in NE PA. Our study provides additional support to the growing body of evidence implicating low level benzene exposure and cancer risk. We recommend that other communities contaminated with gasoline vapor through leaking underground storage vessels be monitored for elevated risk of leukemia.

- by Angela Malek and +1
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Epidemiology, Cancer, Air pollution

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is one of the most rapidly advancing diagnostic imaging tools today. Hazards intrinsic to the MR environment must be understood, acknowledged and respected. MRI is safe, but if something goes wrong, it can go very wrong. MRI-related accidents do happen, however they were not reported in most countries, including Malaysia. There are several safety issues to be considered by the radiologists, clinicians, radiographers, nurses and medical physicists involving with MRI examinations. These include those related to the magnetic field, gradient magnetic fields, and radiofrequency (RF) magnetic fields. This paper reviews the health effects and current safety issues related to MRI environment for both the patients as well as the staff members. Injuries from MRI accidents are occurring more frequently now and there is an urgent need for MRI facilities to implement safety guidelines. We propose several safety recommendations for implementation by the MRI facilities and the health authority.

- by Kjell Mild
- •
- Information Systems, Health Sciences, Statistics, Environmental Epidemiology

Using epidemiologic time series analysis, we examine associations between three hydroclimatic
variables (temperature, precipitation, and streamflow) and waterborne acute gastro-intestinal illness
(AGI) in two communities in the province of British Columbia (BC), Canada. The communities were selected
to represent the major hydroclimatic regimes that characterize BC: rainfall-dominated and snowfall dominated.
Our results show that the number of monthly cases of AGI increased with increasing temperature,
precipitation, and streamflow in the same month in the context of a rainfall-dominated regime, and with
increasing streamflow in the previous month in the context of a snowfall-dominated regime. These results
suggest that hydroclimatology plays a role in driving the occurrence and variability of AGI in these settings.
Further, this study highlights that the nature and magnitude of the effects of hydroclimatic variability on
AGI are different in the context of a snowfall-dominated regime versus a rainfall-dominated regimes. We
conclude by proposing that the watershed may be an appropriate context for enhancing our understanding
of the complex linkages between hydroclimatic variability and waterborne illness in the context of a changing
climate.

Introduction:
We assessed the association between long term exposure to outdoor air pollution and asthma incidence in European adults using two exposure assessment models and two asthma definitions: dichotomic and asthma score.
Methods:
We included 2547 adults aged 43.6 (37.2-49.5) years from 15 cities with never asthma at ECRHS I nor ECRHSII. NO2 and PM2.5 exposure estimates at ECRHS II participant’s home address were calculated using the area-specific land use regression (LUR) model developed by the ESCAPE and Europe wide LUR model developed by the ELAPSE study. Logistic regression was performed for dichotomous asthma incidence while negative binomial regression was used for asthma symptom score (0 to 5), adjusted using random effects for centre.
Results:
8.5% (131 cases) had incident asthma between ECRHS II and ECRHS III, 31.4% (765 cases) had asthma score 1 to 5 and mean asthma score was 0.53 at ECRHS III. For a 5 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5, the adjusted Relative Risk (RR) for asthma score were 1.14 (95% CI: 1.1-1.30) for ESCAPE and 0.97 (0.80-1.18) for ELAPSE. For a 10 μg/m3 increase in NO2, the adjusted RR for asthma score was 1.05 (0.97-1.13) for ESCAPE and 1.05 (0.93-1.18) for ELAPSE. Associations for PM2.5 and NO2 were null for dichotomous asthma in both model exposures.
Discussion:
We did not find consistent associations between air pollutants and adult asthma incidence. Lack of concordant results could be due to chance finding, lack of power or exposure misclassification.

- by Pratik Pokharel
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Asthma, Air Pollution Modelling

Background: Economic and social marginalization among American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/ANs) results in higher chronic disease prevalence. Potential causal associations between toxic environmental exposures and adverse health outcomes within AI/AN communities are not well understood.
Objectives: This review examines epidemiological literature on exposure to toxicants and associated adverse health outcomes among AI/AN populations.
Methods: PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, Environment Complete, Web of Science Plus, DART, and ToxLine were searched for English-language articles. The following data were extracted: lead author’s last name, publication year, cohort name, study location, AI/AN tribe, study initiation and conclusion, sample size, primary characteristic, environmental exposure, health outcomes, risk estimates, and covariates.
Results: About 31 articles on three types of environmental exposures met inclusion criteria: persistent organic pollutants (POPs), heavy metals, and open dumpsites. Of these, 17 addressed exposure to POPs, 10 heavy metal exposure, 2 exposure to both POPs and heavy metals, and 2 exposure to open dumpsites. Studies on the Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne; Yupik on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska; Navajo Nation; Gila River Indian Community; Cheyenne River Sioux; 197 Alaska Native villages; and 13 tribes in Arizona, Oklahoma, North Dakota, and South Dakota that participated in the Strong Heart Study support associations between toxicant exposure and various chronic conditions including cardiovascular conditions, reproductive abnormalities, cancer, auto- immune disorders, neurological deficits, and diabetes.
Discussion: The complex interplay of environmental and social factors in disease etiology among AI/ANs is a product of externally imposed environmental exposures, systemic discrimination, and modifiable risk behaviors. The connection between environmental health disparities and adverse health outcomes indicates a need for further study.

- by Gabriella Meltzer and +2
- •
- Native American Studies, Environmental Epidemiology, Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review, Environmental Health
- by George Havenith and +1
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Heat Exchanger, Regional Planning, Human Body

Introduction: Dysmenorrhea is one of the commonest disorders of menstruation afflicting women of reproductive age. It is a cause of lost time from school and work among such women. Objectives: This study was carried out to determine the perception of dysmenorrhea and its effect on school activities among senior secondary school students in Nnewi-North Local Government Area, Anambra State. Methodology: This was a descriptive cross-sectional study in which information was elicited from 215 senior secondary school students selected by multi-stage sampling technique. Results: The predominant age group of respondents was 15-19 years. Among the 215 students, Original Research Article Egenti et al.; ISRR, 4(2): 1-8, 2016; Article no.ISRR.26487 2 203 had attained menarche but only 143(70.4%) experienced dysmenorrhea. Also 143 perceived menarche as a normal pain that came with menstruation while 60 regarded it as a sign of some abnormality in the body. Menstrual pain led to impaired concentration in class among 56 (39.2%) of student, missing school/classes by 10(7%) students, and not participating in games by 12 (8.4%) student. However, 25(17.5%) of respondents saw a doctor for their pain, while the rest resorted to self-medication and other non-pharmacological means of pain relief. Conclusion: The prevalence of dysmenorrhea was high among the students and it affected several school activities adversely. However, several wrong practices have been adopted by majority of the students to tackle their condition. Recommendation: A proper orientation on dysmenorrhea should be given to parents and teachers of students at the Parents Teachers Association (PTA) meeting to enable them address properly, all matters related to this condition.

- by N. Egenti and +1
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Nutritional Epidemiology, Occupational Epidemiology, Epidemiology and biostatistics

Background: Indian sub-continent has not only wealthy landscapes environment to support huge population, but also has big challenging problems of vector borne disease epidemics across the country. India has become host for all kinds of virus of malaria, dengue, chikungunya, and JE, and also endemic host for filariasis parasites. The integrated hybrid techniques of remote sensing, GPS, and GIS are used to map the spatial variation of the vector biodiversity, vector abundance, and the active infection state of vector borne disease transmission, and surveillance towards the epidemic control and management. Materials and Methods: The Indian IRS satellite data was used to mapping the use/ land cover of metropolitan study area, and was used to mapping of Malaria and JE Vector Mosquito Breeding Habitats. The mosquito potential breeding surface of malaria, dengue, chikungunya, JE and filariasis was calculated for the each ward and which was mapped with graduated colors. The Arc View 3.2, Arc View Spatial analysis and Arc View image analyst, GIS software used to create a systematic grid sampling method for conducting the reconnaissance survey and mapping mosquito breeding surface maps. GARMIN 12XL GPS was used to collect the mosquito reconnaissance survey for mosquito vectors in the city. Result and Discussion: The total potential breeding surfaces of malaria, filariasis and JE were measured in square kilo meters (sq.km), the habitats positive for dengue and chikungunya vector mosquitoes breeding was calculated in percentage for mapping and the ward wise cumulative value of mosquitoes potential breeding was also estimated for mapping the areas vulnerable for mosquito problems and the extensive of vector mosquito borne disease transmissions. The mosquito's problem was highly associated with population density and the number of houses, households, and perhaps, it was spatially good agreement with ground water tables. A systematic grid sampling was applied to conduct a rapid survey for mapping Aedes species mosquitogenic condition in the urban areas and the site coordinates of houses information with breeding habitats positive in the grid sectors was collected using GPS. The virtual GPS under the GIS umbrella was used to conduct a rapid survey with 0.5km distance interval (grid sampling procedures) for assessing the mosquitogenic condition and for mapping the sectors positives for dengue and chikungunya vector mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti or Ae. albopictus) breeding habitats (water storage vessels, plastic and cement containers, tires, plastic cups, coconut cells, tree holes, flower vessels, fridge, stone grinder, etc.,) with accurate site specifications, and the mean value of positive habitats was analyzed by quintiles method for mapping the ground situation in the urban settlements. Conclusion: It is concluded that remote sensing, GPS, and GIS are effectively useful to identify, delineate and mapping of vector mosquitoes potential breeding surface areas and studying the mosquitogenic conditions in the urban agglomeration, and used to control and management of the vector borne disease transmission, perhaps, may also be GIS based surveillance is the best solution for epidemic control and management of the present situation vector borne disease transmission; especially, malaria and dengue epidemic in the country. Keywords: mosquito breeding habitats, remote sensing and GIS, land use and land cover, vector surveillance

- by Masimalai Palaniyandi and +1
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Spatial Analysis, Remote sensing and GIS, Heath and Urban Geography
- by Giovanni Leonardi and +1
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Epidemiology, Higher Education, Public Health

Mosquito nuisance and the urban malaria become very big problems in the urban settlements in India. A significant study was made to mapping the potential surface areas of mosquito breeding habitats, mosquito breeding surface areas, ground water level, and land use / land cover classes, and linking with ward wise malaria cases. The indigenous satellite data of value added hybrid colour composite imagery of IRS 1D PAN and LISS III was used for preparing land use / land cover map. The Arc View spatial analysis and image analyst GIS software was used for mapping and overlay analysis. Performing the spatial analysis enabled for reexamining mosquito breeding habitats, and assessing the mosquito breeding surface areas for mosquito control in the city on priority basis. Thus, the result was made clear that the application of remote sensing and GIS is sensible and feasible to malaria epidemic control in the urban environment.

Infectious disease such as malaria, dengue, and diarrhea that are spread by vectors such as mosquitoes and flies are rife in the much of the developing world, potentially impacting more than two-third of the world's population. Environmental conditions that favor the transmission of such diseases are, in turn, affected by human activity such as deforestation, livestock rearing, irrigated farming, migration, road construction, dam-building, and water and sanitation infrastructure provision through their impact on the survival and abundance of disease vectors. Therefore, the prevention and control of these diseases relies on the interplay of public policies (e.g., reducing microbial pathogen load in public water supplies) and private choices (e.g., safe storage, treatment, and handling of drinking water and food inside the house). As described, externalities play important roles in disease dynamics, demonstrating the need for public policies such as subsidies/taxes, information and technical assistance to achieve socially desirable outcomes. This paper presents an application in public economics that tests analytical models of economic epidemiology. The first part of the paper reviews and synthesizes the early literature that has focused on the behavioral basis of disease control and prevention. The second part presents empirical applications where we use the analytical models to shape the econometric analyses, permitting perhaps the first tests of untested hypotheses about the effectiveness of disease control interventions and how they related to private disease control. We draw on several data sets, including a large multi-year, multi-scale on going study from rural India to build econometric models of disease outcomes and public interventions. We conclude with a discussion of policy implications and conceptual and empirical research extensions.

- by Jui-Chen Yang
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology

Vibrio cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus are the two Vibrio species with a major impact on human health. Diseases caused by the both pathogens are currently involved in an expansion at global scale. In this paper, we resume the ecological aspects associated with the arrival and spreading of infections caused by V. parahaemolyticus and V. cholerae in Peru from a South American perspective. Moreover, we discuss the similarities in the emergence in Peru of cholera cases in 1991 and V. parahaemolyticus infections in 1997. These two cases were used as exceptional experiments to evaluate the relationships between the Vibrio diseases and the environment. The epidemic radiations of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus constitute to clear examples supporting the oceanic dispersion of pathogenic vibrios and have enabled the identification of El Niño events as a potential mechanism for the spreading of diseases through the ocean.

- by Ronnie Gavilan
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Public Health, Ecology of infectious diseases, Vibrio

Traditional approaches in environmental spatial epidemiology have relied on assessing postulated links between environmental pollution and ill health, often as a response to a perceived public health problem; clearly it may be necessary to go beyond this stage in order to establish the nature of potential causal mechanisms. Different disciplines approach this issue in different ways. Many toxicologists favour approaches based on air quality monitoring, where raised levels of candidate pollutants may subsequently generate hypotheses about adverse health effects. Epidemiologists, however, assess the health of a population and then look for an associated cause. This paper suggests that neither approach is completely satisfactory and that a combination of both is needed. If spatially referenced data are available for both health status and air quality, then geographical analysis is needed to examine possible links, by using techniques such as atmospheric dispersion modelling and Geographical Information Systems. We discuss the benefits and constraints of these approaches, using empirical examples of environmental epidemiology studies for northern England. Taking into account the problems involved in such studies, allied to the high costs incorporated, the paper asks the question: Are we searching for the impossible?

- by Simon Kingham
- •
- Geography, Anthropology, Air Quality, Environmental Epidemiology

Background: Globally, millions of children aged below 5 years die every year and some of these deaths could have been prevented. Though a global problem, under-five mortality is also a major public health problem in Ghana with a rate of 60 deaths per 1000 live births. Identification of drivers of mortality among children aged below 5 years is an important problem that needs to be addressed because it could help inform health policy and intervention strategies aimed at achieving the United Nations SDG Goal 3 target 2. The aim of this study is to develop a predictive model and to identify determinants of under-five mortality.

Scant evidence is available worldwide on the relative influence of occupational social class and educational level on body concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the general population. The objective was to analyse such influence in a representative sample of the general population of Catalonia, Spain. Participants in the Catalan Health Interview Survey aged 18-74 were interviewed face-to-face, gave blood, and underwent a physical exam. The role of age, body mass index (BMI), and parity was analysed with General Linear Models, and adjusted geometric means (GMs) were obtained. Crude (unadjusted) concentrations were higher in women and men with lower education, and in women, but not men, in the less affluent social class. After adjusting for age, in women there were no associations between POP levels and social class or education. After adjusting for age and BMI, men in the less affluent class had higher p,p′-DDE concentrations than men in class I (p-value = 0.016), while men in class IV had lower HCB than men in the upper class (p-value b 0.03). Also in contrast with some expectations, positive associations between education and POP levels were observed after adjusting for age and BMI in men; e.g., men with university studies had higher HCB concentrations than men with first stage of primary schooling (adjusted GM 153.9 and 80.5 ng/g, respectively) (p-value b 0.001). When education and social class were co-adjusted for, some positive associations with education in men remained statistically significant, whereas class remained associated only with p,p′-DDE. Educational level influenced blood concentrations of POPs more than occupational social class, especially in men. In women, POP concentrations were mainly explained by age/birth cohort, parity and BMI. In men, while concentrations were also mainly explained by age/birth cohort and BMI, both social class and education showed positive associations. Important characteristics of socioeconomic groups as age and BMI may largely explain crude differences among such groups in internal contamination by POPs. The absence of clear patterns of relationships between blood concentrations of POPs and indicators of socioeconomic position may fundamentally be due to the widespread, lifelong, and generally invisible contamination of human food webs. Decreasing historical trends would also partly explain crude socioeconomic differences apparently due to birth cohort effects.

- by Miquel Porta
- •
- Health Sciences, Environmental Epidemiology, Education, Epidemiology

Indigenous peoples (IPs) worldwide are confronted by the increasing threat of pollution. Based on a comprehensive review of the literature (n = 686 studies), we present the current state of knowledge on: 1) the exposure and vulnerability of IPs to pollution; 2) the environmental, health, and cultural impacts of pollution upon IPs; and 3) IPs' contributions to prevent, control, limit, and abate pollution from local to global scales. Indigenous peoples experience large burdens of environmental pollution linked to the expansion of commodity frontiers and industrial development, including agricultural, mining, and extractive industries, as well as urban growth, waste dumping, and infrastructure and energy development. Nevertheless, IPs are contributing to limit pollution in different ways, including through environmental monitoring and global policy advocacy, as well as through local resistance toward polluting activities. This work adds to growing evidence of the breadth and depth of environmental injustices faced by IPs worldwide, and we conclude by highlighting the need to increase IPs' engagement in environmental decision-making regarding pollution control.

- by Pamela McElwee
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Political Science

We propose modelling short-term pollutant exposure effects on health by using dynamic generalized linear models. The time series of count data are modelled by a Poisson distribution having mean driven by a latent Markov process; estimation is performed by the extended Kalman filter and smoother. This modelling strategy allows us to take into account possible overdispersion and time-varying effects of the covariates. These ideas are illustrated by reanalysing data on the relationship between daily non-accidental deaths and air pollution in the city of Birmingham, Alabama.

- by Carlo Gaetan
- •
- Statistics, Environmental Epidemiology, Time Series, Air pollution
- by Madeleine Scammell
- •
- Sociology, Anthropology, Environmental Epidemiology, Epidemiology

Household air pollution (HAP) due to solid fuel use is a major public health threat in low-income countries. Most health effects are thought to be related to exposure to the fine particulate matter (PM) component of HAP, but it is currently impractical to measure personal exposure to PM in large studies. Carbon monoxide (CO) has been shown in cross-sectional analyses to be a reliable surrogate for particles,2.5 mm in diameter (PM 2.5) in kitchens where wood-burning cookfires are a dominant source, but it is unknown whether a similar PM 2.5-CO relationship exists for personal exposures longitudinally. We repeatedly measured (216 measures, 116 women) 24-hour personal PM 2.5 (median [IQR] = 0.11 [0.05, 0.21] mg/m 3) and CO (median [IQR] = 1.18 [0.50, 2.37] mg/m 3) among women cooking over open woodfires or chimney woodstoves in Guatemala. Pollution measures were natural-log transformed for analyses. In linear mixed effects models with random subject intercepts, we found that personal CO explained 78% of between-subject variance in personal PM 2.5. We did not see a difference in slope by stove type. This work provides evidence that in settings where there is a dominant source of biomass combustion, repeated measures of personal CO can be used as a reliable surrogate for an individual's PM 2.5 exposure. This finding has important implications for the feasibility of reliably estimating long-term (months to years) PM 2.5 exposure in large-scale epidemiological and intervention studies of HAP.

- by anaite diaz-artiga
- •
- Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Earth Sciences, Chemistry

A common problem in epidemiological studies on air pollution is exposure misclassification, because investigators often assume exposure is equivalent to outdoor concentrations at participants' homes or at the nearest urban monitor. The aims of this study were: (1) to develop a new microenvironmental exposure model (MEEM), combining time-activity data with modelled outdoor and indoor NO 2 concentrations; (2) to evaluate MEEM against data collected with OgawaÔ personal samplers (OPS); (3) to compare its performance against datasets typically used in epidemiological studies. Schoolchildren wore a personal NO 2 sampler, kept a time-activity diary and completed a questionnaire. This information was used by MEEM to estimate individuals' exposures. These were then compared against concentrations measured by OPS, modelled outdoor concentrations at the children's home (HOME) and concentrations measured at the nearest urban monitoring station (NUM). The mean exposure predicted by MEEM (mean ¼ 19.6 mg m À3) was slightly lower than the mean exposure measured by OPS (mean ¼ 20.4 mg m À3). The normalised mean bias factor (0.01) and normalised mean absolute error factor (0.25) suggested good agreement. In contrast, the HOME (mean ¼ 31.2 mg m À3) and NUM (mean ¼ 28.6 mg m À3) methods overpredicted exposure and showed systematic errors. The results indicate that personal exposure can be modelled by MEEM with an acceptable level of agreement, while methods such as HOME and NUM show a poorer performance.

This “in process” Conclusion to the Special Issue (SI) “Global politics of knowledge production in EER: ‘New’ theory and North-South representations” (The Journal of Environmental Education) aims to highlight relevant issues and acknowledged limitations and silences from the sample of critiques presented in the SI, all built from a pre-elaborated research agenda and methodological framework for reviewing/revisiting, and possibly de and reconstructing of “new” and “post” (theory). The formulated critique is presented as a prelude to shedding much more critical, praxical, conceptual and empirical “light” on discussing and challenging certain ideas, or ideals, or illusions in environmental education research. Praxis remains to be a notable (epistemological; methodological; pedagogical) limitation, as such, a prominent outstanding challenge.

- by Cae Rodrigues
- •
- Critical Theory, Epistemology, Environmental Epidemiology, Education

This study of breast cancer mortality by proximity to Bradwell nuclear power station was originally part of a joint study to be carried out by 3 separate epidemiological teams as part of the UK Committee Examining Radiation Risks from Internal Emitters. In the event the process was cancelled by the Chair of CERRIE. However, the results show a clear and statistically significant effect with a doubling of breast cancer risk in small areas adjacent to the contaminated intertidal sediment.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to fine airborne particulate matter [≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter (PM 2.5 )] has been associated with cardiovascular and hematologic effects, especially in older people with cardiovascular disease. Some epidemiologic studies suggest that adults with diabetes also may be a particularly susceptible population. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to analyze the short-term effects of ambient PM 2.5 on markers of endothelial function in diabetic volunteers.

- by Maya Styner
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Polymorphism, Environmental Health, Air pollution

Environment and health relationships are conditioned by the spatial organization: the case of mercury exposure in a fluorescent lamp plant Abstract Space has been used for the analyses relating environment and health, as simple geometric plan for the display of epidemiological data, as a proxy for the differentiation of social conditions, or as a circumstance of spatial factors inducing risk. In this work, the three main spatial approaches of health are described, as well as their theoretical limitations. The use geoprocessing in health has been facilitated due to the wide access to epidemiological data bases and the availability of computerized cartographic and statistical tools. However, the use of these tools presupposes models for the explanation of the health/disease process, that are based on a set of spatial variables such as distance, neighborhood, and the linkage of data for characterization of the place. The example of a factory of fluorescent lamps allows to understand the space as mediator of social relations. The location and activity in the factory impose the risk conditions to which the workers are submitted. The spatial analysis of mercury emission, contamination and exposure indicators, identified areas and activities that produce risk conditions to workers. These factors are also related to intern and external production organization.

- by Christovam Barcellos
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Spatial Analysis

Background: Infant consumption of formula reconstituted with fluoridated water can lead to excessive fluoride intake. We examined the association between fluoride exposure in infancy and intellectual ability in children who lived in fluoridated or non-fluoridated cities in Canada. Methods: We examined 398 mother-child dyads in the Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals cohort who reported drinking tap water. We estimated water fluoride concentration using municipal water reports. We used linear regression to analyze the association between fluoride exposure and IQ scores, measured by the Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale of Intelligence-III at 3-4 years. We examined whether feeding status (breast-fed versus formula-fed) modified the impact of water fluoride and if fluoride exposure during fetal development attenuated this effect. A second model estimated the association between fluoride intake from formula and child IQ. Results: Thirty-eight percent of mother-child dyads lived in fluoridated communities. An increase of 0.5 mg/L in water fluoride concentration (approximately equaling the difference between fluoridated and non-fluoridated regions) corresponded to a 9.3-and 6.2-point decrement in Performance IQ among formula-fed (95% CI: −13.77, −4.76) and breast-fed children (95% CI: −10.45, −1.94). The association between water fluoride concentration and Performance IQ remained significant after controlling for fetal fluoride exposure among formula-fed (B = −7.93, 95% CI: −12.84, −3.01) and breastfed children (B = −6.30, 95% CI: −10.92, −1.68). A 0.5 mg increase in fluoride intake from infant formula corresponded to an 8.8-point decrement in Performance IQ (95% CI: −14.18, −3.34) and this association remained significant after controlling for fetal fluoride exposure (B = −7.62, 95% CI: −13.64, −1.60). Conclusions: Exposure to increasing levels of fluoride in tap water was associated with diminished non-verbal intellectual abilities; the effect was more pronounced among formula-fed children. 1. Introduction Fluoride can occur naturally in water and, in some communities, is added to water supplies to reach the recommended concentration of 0.7 mg/L for the prevention of tooth decay (Health Canada, 2010). About 74% of Americans and 38% of Canadians on municipal water are supplied with fluoridated drinking water. Water fluoridation has been reported to reduce the prevalence of tooth decay by 26% to 44%

- by Christine Till
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Medicine, Multidisciplinary, Environment

Abstract: In Nepal, arsenic (As) contamination is a major issue of current drinking water supply systems using groundwater and has recently been one of the major environmental health management issues especially in the plain region, i.e., in the Terai districts, where the population density is very high. The Terai inhabitants still use hand tube and dug wells (with hand held pumps that are bored at shallow to medium depth) for their daily water requirements, including drinking water. The National Sanitation Steering Committee (NSSC), with the help of many other organizations, has completed arsenic blanket test in 25 districts of Nepal by analysing 737,009 groundwater samples. Several organizations, including academic institutions, made an effort to determine the levels of arsenic concentrations in groundwater and their consequences in Nepal. The results of the analyses on 25,058 samples tested in 20 districts, published in the status report of arsenic in Nepal (2003), demonstrated t...

- by Manchan Kumar
- •
- Earth Sciences, Hydrogeology, Oceanography, Environmental Epidemiology

A link between cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality and the hardness of drinking water (DW) is suggested by about 30 epidemiological studies performed worldwide in the general population since 1957. This review examines the main ecological studies, case-control studies and cohort studies, published between 1960 and 2000. Attention is paid to the problem of interpretation of this typical result of environmental epidemiology. Some studies focused on the role played by inorganic elements known as DW contaminants (mainly. As, Pb) and above all on the role of the magnesium content of DW and its cardioprotective effects. To date. it would be impossible to understand this environmental findings without large intervention studies performed in well-controlled public health programs. \c 2 002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

- by M. Sauvant
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Ecology, Cardiovascular disease, Ischaemic heart disease

Due to climate change, an increase of 3–4 °C in ambient temperature is projected along the South African coast and 6–7 °C inland during the next 80 years. The objective of this study was to investigate the association between daily ambient apparent temperature (Tapp) and daily all-cause non-accidental mortality (hereafter mortality) in Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg during a 5-year study period (2006–2010). Susceptibility by sex and age groups (b15 years, 15–64 years and ≥65 years) was also investigated. The associations were investigated with the time-stratified case-crossover epidemiological design. Models were controlled for PM10, public holidays and influenza epidemics. City-specific Tapp thresholds were determined using quasi-Poisson generalised additive models. The pooled estimates by sex and age groups were determined in meta-analyses. The city-specific Tapp thresholds were 18.6 °C, 24.8 °C and 18.7 °C, respectively for Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg. A 3.3%, 2.6% and 2.8% increase in mortality per IQR increase in Tapp (lag0–1) was observed in Cape Town, Durban
and Johannesburg, respectively above the city-specific thresholds. The elderly were more at risk in Cape Town and Johannesburg. No difference in risk was observed for males and females in the three cities. In the meta-analysis an overall significant increase of 0.9% in mortality per 1 °C increase in Tapp (lag0–1)was observed for all age groups combined in the three cities. For the ≥65 year group a significant increase of 2.1% in mortality was observed. In conclusion, the risks for all age groups combined and the elderly are similar to those reported in studies
from developed and developing countries. The results can be used in present-day early warning systems and in risk assessments to estimate the impact of increased Tapp in the country due to climate change. Future research should investigate the association between Tapp and cause-specific mortality and also morbidity.

- by Paulo Andre
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Quality of life, Air pollution, Public Health

Purpose Evidence suggests that arsenic in drinking water causes non-malignant lung disease, but nearly all data concern exposed adults. The desert city of Antofagasta (population 257,976) in northern Chile had high concentrations of arsenic in drinking water ([800 lg/l) from 1958 until 1970, when a new treatment plant was installed. This scenario, with its large population, distinct period of high exposure, and accurate data on past exposure, is virtually unprecedented in environmental epidemiology. We conducted a pilot study on early-life arsenic exposure and long-term lung function. We present these preliminary findings because of the magnitude of the effects observed.

- by Md. Sohel Parvez
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Arsenic, Archives, Chile

In arctic and subarctic regions of Russia, there are 34 industrial cities where the largest metallurgic, paper, and pulp production in the world takes place. This article reviews investigations in environmental epidemiology, which are just beginning. The investigations are hindered by the absence of computer databases and by the migration of the population into other regions. Marked changes in the status of public health can be seen in Nor&k and Montchegorsk, the centers of metallurgy, as well as in cities near paper and pulp production. Improvement of epidemiologic investigations will require better analytical methods and the consideration of information from international sources, for example, the foundation of a cancer register and a register for congenital abnormalities in newborns.

- by Boris Revich
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Epidemiology, Environmental Health, Air pollution

Although much is known about the incidence and burden of preterm birth, its biological mechanisms are not well understood. While several studies have suggested that high levels of air pollution or exposure to particular climatic factors may be associated with an increased risk of preterm birth, other studies do not support such an association. To determine whether exposure to various

- by Sue Lee
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology, Time Series, Air pollution, Urban Health

- by Christine Poulos
- •
- Environmental Epidemiology