Sport Spectatorship Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

In this paper we describe progress to date of software that simulates occupant experience in high capacity sports venues. Our simulation aims to provide metrics that indicate quality of view, and in doing so generates data that indicates levels of human comfort. This approach enables the design process to be driven from the perspective of the occupant. In particular we implement a novel means of simulating and expressing quality-of-view that addresses deficiency's in the standard method of describing view quality. Visualisation of the simulation output is via an online 3D viewer shared with the entire design team. Views from any seat location can be inspected and data fields from the simulation can be compared. Data is represented with colour scales bound to a 3D seating bowl model. Using simulation to understand spectator experience from within a 3D environment challenges the validity of traditional design approaches that are based on two-dimensional thinking and drafting board logic. Our simulated study of view quality enables us to consider revisions to these traditional techniques which could lead to more spatially efficient seating facilities. Increasing spectator density is believed to enhance atmospheric qualities, this combined with better views will contribute towards an improved occupant experience.

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- Ergonomics, Development of Sports Stadiums, Sport Spectatorship, View quality

The latest in the most popular head-to-head fighting video series, Super Street Fighter IV by Capcom, now features spectating functionality. Coupled with audio chat, players can both watch and participate in matches with anyone in the world. We describe a video analysis of over 36 hours of gameplay in SSF4. Our results show that players can deftly structure audio when spectating to transform gameplay in SSF4. This new hybrid spectator sport in which boundaries between actor and audience are blurred exhibits three significant characteristics: the audio recreates the arcade culture, appropriates "invisible" but real players, and symbolically creates power relations between mute and speaking gamers. We also present exploratory evidence that suggests a starkly different experience for female gamers who wish to audibly join in virtual spectating.

- by Patrick C Shih
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- Video Games, Spectatorship, Spectator Participation, Fighting Games
- by Jorge Knijnik and +1
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- Research Methodology, Gender, Gender and Sport, Amazonas

Because maximizing stadium attendance demand is of utmost importance, for both sports economists and sport management researchers, understanding the potential determinants of such demand better has become a priority in the last decades. Here, conducting a systematic scoping review, we map this previous research in terms of its characteristics, its nature, and its volume, thus offering a concise perspective on what has been previously explored, and, more importantly, what remains to be analyzed in the future. Intriguingly, we observe a lack of studies exploring data generated in both niche and women's sports, as well as in most emerging markets. Further, the field has not yet established the use of disaggregated stadium attendance data, despite notable potential methodological pitfalls. Keywords attendance, demand, football/soccer, major league baseball (MLB), major league soccer (MLS), national basketball association (NBA), national football league (NFL), national hockey league (NHL), outcome uncertainty, spectator sports For executives operating in the field of professional sports, maximizing stadium attendance demand is of utmost importance. On the one hand, generating revenue

- by Payam Ansari
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- Attendance, Outcome uncertainty, Spectator Participation, Scoping review

Since its creation in 1903, the Tour de France has remained the biggest of all professional cycling events. This chapter aims to present three aspects of the economic history of the Tour de France and what they tell us about the economic history of sport. First, the Tour has always been owned by private newspaper and media companies. This is why I analyze the level and composition of these companies’ turnover, their business strategies and the reasons for their overall success. Second, Tour riders have always been professionals. This is why I analyze riders’ incomes and prize money and their distribution, which shows clear “winner-takes-all” aspects. Third, the demand for sport shows by Tour spectators reveals broad trends in Europe’s economic history since the early 20th century: the diffusion of bicycles, newspapers and mass consumption, the increase in leisure time, and the advent of the mass media.

- by Jean-François Mignot
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- Business, Marketing, European History, Economic History
- by Masayuki Yoshida and +2
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- Marketing, Sport Psychology, Football (soccer), Recreation & Leisure Studies

Die römischen Spiele, vor allem zur Kaiserzeit, sind in der Forschung der vergangenen Jahre
zahlreich diskutiert worden. Überwiegend gerieten die historische Entwicklung der Spiele mit ihren
religiösen Wurzeln, die politischen Dimensionen im Hinblick auf Mittel zur Machtausübung der
Kaiser bzw. Spielgeber, soziale Aspekte der SpielteilnehmerInnen wie auch der Ablauf der Spiele
selber in den Fokus der Wissenschaft. Weniger Aufmerksamkeit bekamen Phänomene, die soziale
Dynamiken unter den Zuschauenden fokussierten. Wissenschaftliche Ausführungen zu sozialen
Phänomenen bei Aufständen oder Überblicksliteratur zu Aufständen allgemein, vor allem im Kontext
von Gladiatorenspielen, fehlen nahezu vollständig. Lediglich einzelne Ereignisse wie z.B. der Nika-
Aufstand wurden punktuell thematisiert. Vor allem im Vergleich zu den ausgiebigen Berichten über
Rom (aufgrund der Nähe zum Kaiserhof) fanden Ereignisse im Rahmen der Spiele außerhalb der
Hauptstadt nur bei Katastrophen oder anderen Ausnahmen Erwähnung. Somit fehlt in der Forschung
bislang eine Makroperspektive auf Aufstände im Kontext von öffentlichen Spielen einerseits,
andererseits aber auch die Mikroperspektive im Hinblick auf die römischen Provinzen.
Die vorliegende Arbeit legt das Augenmerk auf ein weiteres Ereignis, welches in der modernen
Forschung häufig erwähnt, aber selten ausgiebig besprochen wurde. Das Ziel besteht darin, die
mikroperspektivische Betrachtung des Aufstandes zwischen pompejianischen und nucerinischen
ZuschauerInnen anlässlich eines Gladiatorenspiels in Pompeji im Jahre 59 n. Chr. zu stärken.

- by MaJo Berg
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- Ancient History, Tacitus, Pompeii, Mobs, Riots, and Revolutionary Crowds

Attending live sporting events is a popular leisure and entertainment activity in contemporary European societies, none more important than football (the sport Americans refer to as soccer). For example, according to Deloitte’s (2014) annual report about the football industry, the top 20 European clubs generated combined revenues of over €5.4 billion in 2012-13, including almost €1.2 billion in gate receipts. However, due to myriad aspects such as the difficult economic environment in many countries, the increased competition of other leisure/entertainment activities, the importance of selling broadcasting rights, and the development of new technologies, clubs now face the challenge of retaining and even increasing this high demand. In this sense, clubs need to look for the games as regular opportunities to strengthen the link with current and prospective spectators by providing memorable consumption and/or entertainment experiences that include more than just the competition between two teams on the field, court, ice, track, or better yet, the stage.

- by Rui Biscaia
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- Tourism Studies, Tourism Management, Football (soccer), Recreation & Leisure Studies

The article focuses on the football Ultras and their involvement in the stadium as a social situation and contextual environment from a linguistic point of view. The focus of the article is on the Fiorentina Ultras - Ultras Viola - as it is a very big community of
football followers with a historical role in the Italian Ultras phenomenon. Among the different means of communication adopted by the Ultras Viola, the article focuses on the
analysis of the banners exposed in the stadiums (114 banners exposed by the Fiorentina Ultras from the season 2004/2005 to 2008/2009). The banners are, together with the
choruses, the foremost mean adopted to communicate and they can be seen as a sort of crystallization of the Ultras’ messages. A sociolinguistic, sociosemiotic and sociosemantic
analysis of the banners allows us to identify the styles of communication and the different ways of expression as well as the constitutional dynamics of the Fiorentina Ultras’ identity.
Key words: Football Ultras, Linguistics, Communication

- by Nicola Guerra
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- Discourse Analysis, Semiotics, Cultural Studies, Political Sociology

This research aims to examine football fans’ awareness of their team sponsors and to compare sponsorship awareness between season ticket holders and casual spectators. Data was collected from among fans of a professional football team and results revealed that spectators recall ‘top of mind’ those sponsors with their logo displayed on the team shirts. Thus, being visible from the stadium stands is important to ensure recall rates. Fans are typically able to properly recognise sponsors and non-sponsors of their team. However, some competitor brands engaged in football sponsorship are incorrectly recognised as sponsors of a team. Finally, the number of brands recalled and recognised correctly by season ticket holders is significantly higher than for casual spectators. The research findings, managerial implications, limitations and future research directions are discussed.

- by Rui Biscaia
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- Football (soccer), Teams, Recreation & Leisure Studies, Sports Management
- by Daniel C Funk
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- Brand Management, Consumer Behavior, Customer Loyalty, Segmentation (Marketing)

The ability to draw attendees to performances is vital to the success of a sport organisation. As a result, sport managers and academics attempt to investigate motivations that drive decisions to attend events. In order to make predictions, academic demands have lead to the proliferation of constructs to capture a wide variety of motives while practitioners demand shorter scales to increase efficiency. The purpose of this research is to provide a hybrid approach to provide a parsimonious measuring tool of motives for sport event attendance. Five facets of motivation are proposed: Socialisation, Performance, Excitement, Esteem and Diversion (SPEED) and tested in two studies. The first study (N=333) was conducted at a sport event, while the second study (N=909) was administered to the general population using multiple sports. Results suggest that the SPEED facets show promise as valuable measures of sport consumers’ motivation to attend events. The scale is concise and demonstrates validity, as well as the ability to predict spectator behaviour and intentions.

- by Daniel C Funk
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- Social Psychology, Motivation (Psychology), Sport Marketing, Sporting Events

Previous research provides evidence that sport team fandom is marked by behavior such as overt emotional responses to viewed performances;1 however, previous definitions and models also recognize team fandom as a psychological construct, including notions of involvement (for example, the Psychological Continuum Model)2 and sport team identification (STI).3 The manner(s) in which fans come to identify with their favorite teams influences connectedness to the team, which then has direct association with emotional outcomes and psychological effects.4 In essence, the development of a fan’s interest in a team (including but not limited to family socialization, geography, team characteristics, athletic performance, or media) drives how and whether they think about, attend, and react to their favorite team’s performance.
Thus, this manuscript proposes to examine the convergence of team identity formation and self-disclosure via social media during live sport broadcasts. Essentially, the major factors involve identity formation, spectatorship motives, psychological commitment and investment, self-esteem, and self-disclosure via social media and we will attempt to shed light on the question of what types of sport fans use social media during consumption of sport and whether and what types of disclosures they typically make.

- by Shaughan A Keaton
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- Social Media, Sport Team Identification, Sport Spectatorship

Within the commodified world of professional ice hockey, athletes sell their bodily performances in return for a salary. A central feature of this transaction is the very real risk of physical injury – a risk inherent within most contact sports, but particularly so within those that feature seemingly ‘violent’ confrontations between competitors, as ice hockey is widely reputed to do. Yet within the spectacle of sport, where physicality can be constructed as playful and unserious, it is possible for the consequences of such action to be concealed behind a symbolic, ludic veneer. Within this paper we explore this process with a particular focus on ice hockey spectators, for whom notions of sport violence as in some important way ‘mimetic’ of the ‘real’ enabled their propensity to both enjoy, and find moral validation through, potentially deleterious behaviours among athletes.

- by Alex Channon
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- Sociology of Sport, Sport Psychology, Social Sciences, Sociology of Violence
- by Brian Gordon
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- Marketing, Sport Psychology, Recreation & Leisure Studies, Outdoor Recreation
- by Marin Buovac
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- Ancient History, Military History, Archaeology, Roman History
- by Victoria Silverwood
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- Criminology, Sociology of Sport, Research Methodology, Ethnography

Investigations of publicity's effects on companies and their customers have often been neglected. Few industries incur greater exposure than professional sports, yet work on publicity's effects is scarce. Following a vein of research on Elaboration Likelihood Theory and the effects of advertising, this inquiry examined the nature of responses to publicity, and the effect newspaper coverage has on readers. A repeated measures pre-post design (N = 194) tested the impact positive and negative print communication had on attitudes toward professional sport teams. Reader beliefs and feelings could be shaped in the direction advocated by columnists. However, commitment moderated message effects as less committed readers tended to recall more facts from negative articles, while committed fans tended to counter-argue with more favorable thoughts.

- by Daniel C Funk
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- Communication, Perception, Advertising, Sport Marketing

This study is interested in what sources of team identity formation are related to self-categorization as a sport team fan and the strength of that team identification, and what affective and psychological outcomes become salient in spectatorship scenarios. Participants were administered self- report instruments previously designed to measure team identity formation and psychological effects, then given cognitive tasks adapted from a previous study (Markus, 1977). Participants were required to return to the lab to watch highlights and lowlights of the attending football team’s season. These videos were recorded and coded for affective
responses. Because previous evidence supports connections between identity formation, self-categorization/strength of identity, psychological effects, and affective responses, a generalized latent variable model was estimated. The model fit the data, exposing a mediated relationship. This study extends upon previous research by isolating specific aspects of team identity formation that differentially influence affective and communicative responses, especially when mediated by sport team identification. Findings also support the assertion that identity is related to the value and emotional attachment placed on a group membership.

- by Eva Romero
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- Football (soccer), Television Studies, Rural, Militarism
- by Nathan Kalman-Lamb
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- Sociology of Sport, Political Economy, Marxism, Spectacle

Fan violence associated with spectator sport is considered a serious social problem around the world. In the United States, however, levels of spectator violence have rarely risen to those experienced by the global soccer community. This puzzle has been examined by several scholars. This paper supposes that part of the answer lies within a famous comedy sketch, “Baseball-Football”, by the late comedian, George Carlin. The description of baseball in the sketch makes the point that baseball remains a nineteenth century pastoral game, even into modern times. Since sport spectating culture developed through baseball in the United States, it is hypothesized that the unique characteristics of baseball viewing have influenced all of U.S. sport.

- by Martin Lewison
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- Violence, Disaster risk management, Baseball, Sports Management
- by Chiara Bassetti and +1
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- Computer Vision, Temporary Gatherings, Sport Spectatorship, Spectator Crowd

This diploma thesis deals with the processes of national identity construction through the sports discourse in the media. The main attention is paid to the example of the "failed" performance of the Slovak sportsmen at the Olympic Games in London 2012. Slovaks didn’t repeat their previous medal achievements in London 2012, therefore the media ironically labelled their performance as the "Bronze Age". One aim of this study is to describe and to interpret the way Slovak media covered the performance of the Slovak sportsmen at the Olympics, with the focus on the television broadcast and newspapers. The crucial part of the research, however, is a discourse analysis of the evaluation commentaries in press, which critically reflected the performance of the Slovak national team, moreover, also the overall situation within the Slovak sport. The analysis method is based on the approach of Norman Fairclough, and therefore social identities, relations and systems of knowledge are distinguished within the studied texts. The theoretical basis of this work deals with the importance of international sporting events, the relationship between national identity, sport and the media, and the broader framework of the Slovak national and sporting identity. The work proves that the identity processes within the media discourse of sport are active, and yet they do not always take the form of celebratory patriotism.

- by Roly Hudson
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- Computer Science, Ergonomics, Development of Sports Stadiums, Sport Spectatorship

Psychometric instruments assessing spectator motives for attending professional sports have mostly been validated in a Western context. The present study describes the development of the Persian Soccer Spectator Behaviour Inventory (PSSBI). The 21-item PSSBI was completed by 1385 Iranian spectators. Exploratory factor analysis indicated that the 21 items loaded on four factors: Promotional Incentives, Game Attractiveness, Schedule Considerations, and Economic Considerations. These factors demonstrated acceptable internal consistency and explained 65.48% of the total variance. It is concluded that the resulting 20-item PSSBI is a viable tool for assessing football fans' motives for attending professional football matches in Iran.

- by Mark D Griffiths
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- Sport Psychology, Football (soccer), Psychometrics, Spectatorship

En este texto consideramos, desde la idea tradicionalmente concebida sobre un espectador pasivo, la necesidad de un planteamiento epistemológico que reformule dicha noción a partir del caso de los aficionados al fútbol, particularmente del caso mexicano, y su relación con las imágenes televisadas.
Se trata de cuestionar la supuesta existencia de una mirada receptora, incapaz de articularse a sí misma en acto, con la reflexión sobre qué tipos de posibilidades aparecen para gestionar miradas distintas con la misma transmisión de los partidos e imágenes que agregan información a esas transmisiones.

- by Josué F Hernández Ramírez
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- Destination Image, Sport Spectatorship

Resumo: Neste artigo demonstra-se como o espaço do futebol, produtor de um fenómeno polarizador de grande atração social, sofreu várias transformações ao longo do sec. XX emergindo, a partir da presença e ação dos meios de comunicação, significativas socio-habilidades tendentes à contenção dos impulsos e ao aumento do autocontrolo emocional nos estádios. Exploram-se as configurações e mutações operadas desde a massa uniforme, desindividualizada e irrelevante até à condição indivisível e valorizada do espetador como o décimo segundo jogador. Concebe-se um estudo demonstrador do processo civilizacional nos estádios, evidenciando-se o papel da rádio como mediador dos sentidos e as mudanças associadas à transformação do espetáculo futebolístico em hiperespetáculo televisivo, responsável pelo ampliar do palco e introdução nas bancadas de elementos tendentes ao controlo da excitação individual através da exploração de técnicas do corpo, e do poder da disciplina, com vista à artealização do adepto. Palavras-chave: Futebol, mídia, excitação, artealização, autocontrolo. Abstract: In this article it is shown how the soccer space, producer of a polarizing phenomenon of great social attraction, underwent several transformations throughout the sec. XX emerging from the presence and action of the media, significant socio-skills tending to restrain impulses and increase emotional self-control in the stages. We explore the configurations and mutations operated from the uniform mass, de-individualized and irrelevant until the indivisible and valued condition of the spectator as the twelfth player. A study demonstrating the civilizational process in the stadiums, highlighting the role of the radio as a mediator of the senses and the changes associated with the transformation of the soccer spectacle into a television hyperspectrum, is responsible for the expansion of the stage and the introduction of control elements of individual excitement through the exploration of body techniques, and of the power of discipline, with a view to the artistry of the adept.

- by Esser Silva
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- Sports History, Radio, Television, History of Football

ln Adapted Physical Activity (ApA) field is it widely accepted that physical activity is inherenfly empowering.
However, to date, tools to empirically assess the validity of this assumption are scarce and underdeveloped (Hutzler, 2OO8; Reid,2OO3; Silva & Howe,2O12). Drawing upon a three-year ethnographic investigation into the culture of sitting volleyball (SV) in the United Kingdom (UK) aimed at evaluating the impact of the sport on the personal capabilities of players with impairments, we defend that the human development focus of capabilities approach offers ethical, conceptual and methodological guidance essential to evaluate APA potential to promote the empowerment of its public. Because this approach
is grounded in the defense of essential values of a life
worthy of human dignity such as freedom, agency and
self-determination (Nussbaum, 2006, 2011; Sen, 1999, 2009), this connection would also help ApA to reinforce its social legitimacy. The present paper ouflines this study's methodological design and presents a summary of significant findings.

- by Carol Thompson
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- Sociology of Sport, Gender Studies, Women's Studies, Research Methodology

Branded Residences, Branding Tourism facilities & Condominiums

- by Alvaro HIDALGO
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- Marketing, Real Estate, New Media, Social Networks

The volume represents a new phase in the sociology of sport and leisure in the UK. Arranged into 4 general categories, it comprises 9 chapters. Following a general introduction, the first two (J. Gershuny, S. Jones and J. Smith respectively) are extended summaries of empirical data which illustrate and critically discuss the value of conventional survey methods and secondary analysis in leisure research, focusing on:(1) the changing work/leisure relationship in the UK 1961-84;(2) the impact of sex differences and sharing ...

- by MARK PRITCHARD
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- Business, Communication, Perception, Advertising

The present study aimed to investigate the motives of the spectators to attend matches of the Greek professional soccer league. Due to this purpose, 2322 fans of the Super League teams which competed in the championship of 2011-12, completed a questionnaire relevant with motivations of attending soccer matches (socialization, performance, excitement, esteem and diversion, Funk et al., 2009) and a demographic data sheet. The questionnaires were completed only from the home team fans and every time before the beginning of the games. Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics indices and factorial analysis of the questionnaire which revealed five factors throughout 10 items. Dominant factor of soccer matches attendance revealed "pleasure" derived by the fans, while also determinant factors revealed both of "socialization" and "escape" from the daily grind. Conclusively, the strategy of soccer clubs should focus primarily on pleasure offering soccer matches as a spectacle, rather than as ranking exertion, so the presence of spectators to rise to the greatest possible extent.

- by Zorzou Amalia and +1
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- Sport Spectatorship, Attendance Motives
- by José Neves
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- Sociology of Sport, Political Economy, Research Methodology, Sport Studies

Luxury, Sports and Residential Tourism Developments

- by Alvaro HIDALGO
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- Marketing, Cultural Studies, New Media, Brand Management

The feeling of security in public sports stadiums is one of the most critical indicators for the quality of the arena. The use of environmental graphics in stadiums can create a sense of security in the spectators. This study aimed to design a communication model of environmental graphics and a sense of security in Iranian soccer spectators. Methodology: An applied method was adopted for this descriptiveexplanatory research. The researcher-made questionnaire with five environmental graphics components and six feelings of security was used for data collection. Fifteen experts confirmed the validity of the questionnaire and its overall reliability for environmental graphics and security. The study's statistical population included the spectators of the Iranian Premier League, among whom 384 people were selected in proportion to the size of stadiums. Findings: The results showed a significant relationship between environmental graphics and feeling of security in spectators and that the intensity of this relationship was 0.553 based on R2 criterion, indicating a strong correlation between these two variables. Therefore, in the design, construction and installation of soccer stadiums, it is necessary to instil a sense of security in the spectators present in the stadium and prevent social and cultural anomalies or non-return of spectators to the stadiums using the capacity of graphic, environmental experts. Originality: This article is valuable and unique because it analyzes the relationship between new variables of Environmental Graphics and Feeling of Security in Spectators.

- by Sports Business Journal and +1
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- Advertising, Sports Security, Football and Fans, Football Stadium Economics

Spectacles in the Roman Empire (athletic competitions, scenic games, gladiatorial fights, and circus races) brought together generally heterogeneous crowds including, among others, magistrates, senators, knights, plebeians, slaves, women, and children. But did all layers of Roman society have easy access to the spectator stands? Did they experience these entertainments under the same conditions? Did they respond to them with the same emotions and sensations? To what extent did the composition of the provincial public differ from those of Rome? These are the central questions raised by the authors of this book who answer them by drawing upon all the available sources of evidence: graffiti, inscriptions, literature, iconography, and archaeological finds. Each contribution investigates different categories of the public and produces a finer and more nuanced understanding of Roman spectators and their diverse reception of the performances in Antiquity.

- by Sinclair W Bell and +1
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- Roman History, Audience Studies, Audience and Reception Studies, Spectatorship
- by Rui Biscaia
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- Football (soccer), Structural Equation Modeling, Sports Management, Sport Marketing

By the twentieth century, sports shows were an established part of the Lakeland leisure calendar and between 1930 and the early 1950s, the region was home to a considerable number of annual shows and galas, of various sizes and differing levels of success. These shows were community events on a grand scale; those held in Ambleside and Grasmere, often attracted in excess of 10,000 visitors. They provided a competitive space for older localized sports, which had been increasingly replaced during the early decades of the twentieth century, by modern, codified sports such as football. Events such as these also helped shape a distinctive sense of place, and presented Lakeland in a particular light to outsiders. As the paper will show, this became an increasingly important dimension of sporting events in the region during this period. The paper therefore also examines how sports shows were represented in both the local press and at a national level, and how this contributed to the construction of particular kinds of local identity.

- by Rebecca Andrew
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- Cultural History, Tourism Studies, Research Methodology, Rural History