Volunteers, volunteering, & voluntarism Research Papers (original) (raw)

Volunteering is an integral part of the heritage sector. A European Union study on volunteering revealed that 92 to 94 million adults are involved in volunteering (Oostlander, 2014). Which brings to question, what are the underlining motivations of volunteers? The reasons vary, however they all have a similar pattern, from selfless motivations i.e. altruism and enthusiasm, to the development of life skills. The public and private agencies of all types and sizes have relied on the use of volunteers to ensure continued success of their programs (Liao-Troth & Dunn, 1999). This dependency on volunteers can identify and reflect the organisation key strengths and weaknesses within the community. This paper will examine the motivations of the volunteers, the dependency of public and private sector agencies, the equality between paid staff and volunteers and lastly, the importance of volunteers in the heritage sector including volunteer tourist.
In 2009, it was estimated that over 100,000 volunteers worked in museums in the UK, contributing around £108 million of value (Timbrell, 2014). Hence what are the motivations of the individual? Although altruism may lead a person to volunteer initially, self-interested motivations are more important for continued participation (Ryan, et al., 2001). In which, Holmes (2002) adds that volunteers were motivated by intrinsic motives, such as subject interest, while extrinsic motives, particularly social opportunities motivated them to continue to volunteer (p.3). Whereas in Hewitt’s findings, the commitments of volunteers were equal and perhaps greater than that of paid staff and moral obligations due to the enthusiasm of volunteers (Hewitt. & Eve, 2012). Although no there are no financial return expected from volunteers, there is an expectance to be compensated, such as new skills or a promise of employment.

This expectance derives from key positives for volunteers which includes professional training, good management and organizations by staff (Hewitt. & Eve, 2012). The environment and heritage sectors appear to reflect broader volunteering patterns in the respect that younger people were more likely to say learning skills or gaining a qualification was a motivation, while older people emphasised using their own skills and having the time (CASE, 2011). While there is an apparent age gap, volunteering is continuously empowering when it contributes to the acquisition of personal skills and confidence of each volunteer (Gooch, 2010). The recent report by CASE (2011) states:

“People who are not motivated by altruism or making a difference to the lives of others when deciding to volunteer, may continue volunteering.” (CASE, 2011)

The question of motivation, including the pressure for survival and growth pushes museums to rely more on volunteers to cut costs and improve efficiency (Stamer, et al., 2008). In the Museums Association Survey (2011), 140 museums (116 located in England), in which fifth of the publicly funded museums had their funding cut by over 25%. As museums are non-statutory organisations; they remain within the types of service that are not funded as a matter of law (Tili., 2012). This is why establishments are dependent on volunteers. In regards to this pressure, the International Labour Organization (ILO) recently advocated for nations to actively measure, encourage and promote volunteer work (2011). However, where there is a lack of funding, the means to promote is impossible. In addition, the conservation work in the National Trust, and much of this work would not get done without volunteers (Timbrell, 2014). Most recently, Resource: the Council for Museums, Archives and Libraries found that 92% of museums involved volunteers (Holmes, 2003). Without this huge voluntary workforce, many of the activities of the major heritage organizations simply could not take place (Keep, 1999: 6). However, for the avoidance of doubt, volunteers are not employees or members of staff and it is not intended that they should be (English Heritage, n.d.). Further to this, Zimmeck (2000) states:

“They work, but they are not employees [...]if they do not feel that they are properly involved, supported or cherished, they will walk away.” (p.5)
There is the underlining need for volunteers. Without volunteers’ active participation, society would lose a vital resource (Cordery, et al., 2013, p. 47). Whereas the museum is usually a non-profit organisation, and involvement in heritage tourism is not normally the primary purpose of the museum (Smith & Smith, 2001). However, the motivations of volunteers or other parts of the heritage sector are not adhered solely on altruism. The emergence of volunteer tourists overseas, where the practice of individuals going on a working holiday, volunteering their labour for a worthy cause (Tomazos & Butler, 2009), has grown in popularity. Otoo and Amuquandoh (2014), indicate that the three key motivations: altruism and learning, philanthropy, and socialization, influence the decision to volunteer in Ghana (p. 51). The motives here include a mixture of altruism, intrinsic and extrinsic motives, emphasising that volunteer motives are not associated to a singular motive. However, Otoo and Amuquandoh explore the varied motivational factors that influence the decision to volunteer overseas. From what they conclude, people are committed to devote more money to volunteer if they believe they are providing a selfless help to needy communities (2014: 56), especially if there is an acknowledgement that their help is appreciated. However, the value of volunteering cannot be quantified. The Accounting Standards Board (ASB) amended its requirement stating it is not expected that contributions made by volunteers can be reasonably quantified, therefore, these services shall not be ‘recognized’. (Accounting Standards Board, 2011). This goes to suggest that this lack of ‘recognized’ priority is the catalyst for this pressure for volunteers.

In conclusion, this paper has emphasised that volunteering is not motivated by a singular motive. In terms of status, there seems to be an obvious form of hierarchy, that although the volunteers are not paid staff, there is a need for equality between the individuals and staff. However, there is a need for co-operation and support from the public and private agencies in order to fully support volunteers. The value of volunteers is primarily of financial saving, where funding is lacking. Their value and motivation comes from enthusiasm for the organisation. What this paper concludes is that volunteering is a continuous and diverse process, as demonstrated in volunteer tourism.