In Ireland: History Ireland, lying to the west of Britain, has always been to some extent cut off by it from direct contact with other European countries, especially those from Sweden to the Rhine River. Readier access has been through France, Spain, and Portugal and even Read More
Anglo-Irish Agreement
In Anglo-Irish Agreement …that gave the government of Ireland an official consultative role in the affairs of Northern Ireland. Considered one of the most significant developments in British-Irish relations since the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, the agreement provided for regular meetings between ministers in the Irish and British governments… Read More
Australia
In Australia: Ethnic groups The ties to Britain and Ireland were scarcely affected by immigration from other sources until then. The complex demographic textures in Australia at the beginning of the 21st century contrasted quite sharply with the homogeneity of the country during the first half of the 20th century. Although some nine-tenths of… Read More
Black and Tan police
In Black and Tan When Irish republican agitation intensified after World War I, giving rise to the Irish War of Independence, a large proportion of the Irish police resigned. They were replaced by these temporary English recruits—mostly jobless former soldiers—who were paid 10 shillings a day. Read More
Commonwealth
In Commonwealth: Membership and criteria …from the organization, as did Ireland (1949), South Africa (1961), and Pakistan (1972), though both South Africa and Pakistan eventually rejoined (the former in 1994 and the latter in 1989). Read More
dominion status
In dominion …the Union of South Africa, Eire, and Newfoundland. Although there was no formal definition of dominion status, a pronouncement by the Imperial Conference of 1926 described Great Britain and the dominions as “autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any… Read More
In education: The Irish and English revivals …in the remote land of Ireland, introduced there initially by the patron saints of Ireland—Patrick, Bridget, and Columba—who established schools at Armagh, Kildare, and Iona. They were followed by a number of other native scholars, who also founded colleges—the most famous and greatest university being the one at Clonmacnois, on… Read More
Good Friday Agreement
In Good Friday Agreement …1998, and ratified in both Ireland and Northern Ireland by popular vote on May 22 that called for devolved government in Northern Ireland. Read More
Irish Potato Famine
In Great Famine >Ireland in 1845–49 when the potato crop failed in successive years. The crop failures were caused by late blight, a disease that destroys both the leaves and the edible roots, or tubers, of the potato plant. The causative agent of late blight is the Read More
In Lisbon Treaty …2008, but a referendum in Ireland—the only country that put the Lisbon agreement to a public vote—rejected it on June 12, 2008, thus jeopardizing the entire treaty. More than a year later, on October 2, 2009, Ireland held a second referendum, which passed. Poland’s government also had expressed reservations, but… Read More
Medieval religious conversions
In history of Europe: The great commission …5th century the conversion of Ireland, the first Christianized territory that had never been part of the Roman Empire, brought the particularly Irish ascetic practice of self-exile to bear on missionary work. In the 6th century the Irish monk Columba (c. 521–597) exiled himself to the island of Iona, from… Read More
nationalist resistance in Cork
In Cork …Cork became a center of Irish nationalist resistance to British military and police repression, and parts of the city were burned by British forces in retaliation for an ambush on a convoy carrying members of the elite Auxiliary Division of the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC). Two of the city’s lord… Read More
Neolithic Period
In history of Europe: The adoption of farming In Britain and Ireland, forest clearance as early as 4700 bce may represent the beginnings of agriculture, but there is little evidence for settlements or monuments before 4000 bce, and hunting-and-gathering economies survived in places. The construction of large communal tombs and defended enclosures from 4000 bce may… Read More
Orange Order
In Orange Order Irish Protestant and political society, named for the Protestant William of Orange, who, as King William III of Great Britain, had defeated the Roman Catholic king James II. Read More
Scottish Industrial Revolution
In Scotland: The Industrial Revolution Hundreds of thousands of Irish emigrants went to Scotland in the 19th century, beginning prior to but increasing in number during the Irish Potato Famine of 1845–49. In some country regions there was a population decrease as people moved to the towns, to England, or overseas. Part of the… Read More
Viking invasions
In Viking: The western seas, Vinland, and Ireland Scandinavian invasions of Ireland are recorded from 795, when Rechru, an island not identified, was ravaged. Thenceforth fighting was incessant, and, although the natives often more than held their own, Scandinavian kingdoms arose at Dublin, Limerick, and Waterford. The kings of Dublin for a time felt strong enough… Read More
written genealogy
In genealogy: Early written records …conversion of the peoples of Ireland, Wales, and England to Christianity, the recording of their regal traditions began. It was natural for the first chroniclers, who were mostly monks, to write down the oral pedigrees of the kings in whose realms they lived. Students of the Irish regal pedigrees are… Read More
policy of
Burke
In Edmund Burke: Political life Ireland was a special problem in imperial regulation. It was in strict political dependency on England and internally subject to the ascendancy of an Anglo-Irish Protestant minority that owned the bulk of the agricultural land. Roman Catholics were excluded by a penal code from political… Read More
Cornwallis Island
In Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess and 2nd Earl Cornwallis As viceroy of Ireland (1798–1801), Cornwallis won the confidence of both militant Protestants (Orangemen) and Roman Catholics. After suppressing a serious Irish rebellion in 1798 and defeating a French invasion force on September 9 of that year, he wisely insisted that only the revolutionary leaders be punished. As… Read More
de Valera
In Eamon de Valera: Rise to power …national self-sufficiency in an Irish-speaking Ireland while building up industries behind protective tariffs. In a new constitution ratified by referendum in 1937, the Irish Free State became Ireland (in Irish, Éire), a sovereign, independent democracy tenuously linked with the British Commonwealth (under the External Relations Act of 1936) only for… Read More
Elizabeth I
In Elizabeth I: The queen’s image Essex returned from Ireland against the queen’s orders, insulted her in her presence, and then made a desperate, foolhardy attempt to raise an insurrection. He was tried for treason and executed on February 25, 1601. Read More
Henry II
In Angevin empire In 1171 he annexed Ireland and obtained direct control of the eastern part of the island and nominal control of the remainder. Finally, from 1174 to 1189, William I the Lion, king of Scotland, captured in a skirmish in 1174, was obliged to accept Henry as his overlord. Read More
Richmond
In Charles Lennox, 3rd duke of Richmond …a policy of concession in Ireland, with reference to which he originated the phrase “a union of hearts,” which long afterward became famous when his use of it had been forgotten. In 1780 Richmond embodied in a bill his proposals for parliamentary reform, which included manhood suffrage, annual parliaments, and… Read More
Saint Leger
In Sir Anthony Saint Leger …an English lord deputy of Ireland from 1540 to 1548, 1550 to 1551, and 1553 to 1556. Considered by many historians to be the most able 16th-century English viceroy of Ireland, he maintained peace in that country by upholding the feudal privileges of the powerful native chieftains. Read More
In Thomas Radcliffe, 3rd earl of Sussex …an English lord lieutenant of Ireland who suppressed a rebellion of the Roman Catholics in the far north of England in 1569. He was the first governor of Ireland to attempt, to any considerable extent, enforcement of English authority beyond the Pale (comprising parts of the modern counties of Dublin,… Read More
Wellesley
In Richard Colley Wellesley, Marquess Wellesley As lord lieutenant of Ireland, Wellesley disappointed the anti-Catholic George IV, and he was about to be removed when his brother, Wellington, was appointed prime minister (January 1828). Wellesley then resigned because his brother was opposed to Roman Catholic emancipation, although the duke was constrained to accept (1829) that… Read More
In Act of Union …Britain (England and Scotland) and Ireland under the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Read More
effect on Northern Ireland
In United Kingdom: The Irish question The Irish question loomed ominously as soon as Parliament assembled in 1880, for there was now an Irish nationalist group of more than 60 members led by Charles Stewart Parnell, most of them committed to Irish Home Rule; in Ireland itself, the Land… Read More
fears of French invasion
In United Kingdom: Domestic responses to the American Revolution …that the French would invade Ireland as a prelude to invading the British mainland led ministers to encourage the creation of an Irish volunteer force some 40,000 strong. The Irish Protestant elite, led by Henry Grattan, used this force and the French threat to extract concessions from London. In 1783… Read More
governor-general
In governor-general When the Irish Free State was created in 1922, a further advance was made, for the governor-general was chosen by the Free State government and approved only by the crown. The representative of the crown in Ireland had previously held the rank of viceroy, but the Government… Read More
Irish Free State
In 20th-century international relations: The reorganization of the Middle East …Lloyd George finally bowed to Irish demands for independence. After much negotiation and a threatened revolt in the northern counties, the compromise of December 1921 established the Irish Free State as a British dominion in the south while predominantly Protestant Northern Ireland remained in the United Kingdom. (The Sinn Féin… Read More
In United Kingdom: Ireland and the return of the Conservatives In 1919 revolutionary disorder broke out in the south of Ireland when the provisional government of Ireland, organized by the Sinn Féin party, began guerrilla military operations against the British administration (see Irish War of Independence). Through 1920… Read More
