Voltaire and Confucius: French attitudes towards China in the early twentieth century (original) (raw)

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In the 1920s, warlords increased the complexity of the political environment in China and also prevented several dominant ambitious colonial powers from further colonization in China (Fairbank and Twitchett, 1983, pp. 284–321). Among these powers, France claimed that French culture interfered with and influenced Chinese culture more slightly compared with other Western cultures' hegemonic and overloading influence and that France's spirit and aspirations were harmonious with China's native culture (Bailey, 1992, pp. 822–830). This propaganda fit with Chinese intellectuals' embrace of cultural identity and nationalism in their resistance to the disunity and international vulnerability in the turmoil caused by Chinese warlords (Fairbank and Twitchett, 1983, p. 319).

• Evolution of B2B relationship stages in China: A study of confucianism philosophy

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Confucianism philosophies continuously dominate and influence as the guiding principles that infiltrate, guide, and govern social values, behavioral patterns, interpersonal interactions, and interorganizational relations of East Asian societies, especially the Greater China, since the late Tang Dynasty (Fan, 2000; Hennig, 2016; Neville, 2000; Wall, Preston, & Zhang, 2009). Thereafter, Confucianism philosophies have been adapted and applied in various disciplines, for instance, spirituality, religiosity, and cognition development in social studies, global trades and internationalization of Asian firms in economic studies (e.g., Bailey, 1992; Paik & Sohn, 1998), transformational leadership in organizational behaviors (e.g., Pillai et al., 2011; Muniapan & Seng, 2010; Lin, Ho, & Lin, 2013; Stone, Conley, & Luo, 2014), business ethics in CSR studies (e.g., Miles, 2006; Su, Pan, & Chen, 2017), guanxi (e.g., Langenberg, 2013; Pilotta, 2013; White, 2006), and business relationships in marketing studies (e.g., Barnes et al., 2011; Lee, Lin, Lee, & Lee, 2010; Vesalainen & Kohtamäki, 2015). Originating from Confucius, Confucianism philosophies were discussed, elaborated, enriched, and presented by Mencius into the five virtues of Ren (仁), Yi (义), Li (礼), Zhi (智), and Xin (信) (in han-yu pin-yin) as the sensible medium of the social rules and code of ethics to be followed that shape the values, actions, behaviors, relationships, social expectations, and exchanges among the people in the region (Tien & Olson, 2003; Zhu, 2015). View all citing articles on Scopus

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