Alhassan Usman Bello | YOBE STATE UNIVERSITY (original) (raw)

Papers by Alhassan Usman Bello

Variation in the extent of cooking time, temperature and heating source may greatly affect the po... more Variation in the extent of cooking time, temperature and heating source may greatly affect the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) double bond stability in eggs. A study was carried out to determine the oxidative stability of PUFA content of designer eggs subjected to different cooking methods. A total of 160 eggs of 4 commercial brands were obtained: A: conventional, B: DHA Gold™, C: LTK™, and D: Safegg™, and equally and randomly assigned to 4 cooking methods: (i) no cooking, (ii) boiling, (iii) frying, and (iv) microwaving. The results showed that brand and cooking method significantly influenced the PUFA content in the eggs. B had the highest n-3 and n-6 PUFA contents, and the lowest n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio compared to brands A, B, and D. The brand B had the lowest malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration compared to other brands. All methods of cooking increased MDA content (P0.05). In conclusion, boiling appeared to be the most and microwaving the least suitable method of cooking for eggs,...

Italian Journal of Animal Science, 2017

Stimulation of serotonergic activity by tryptophan (TRP) supplementation is known to influence be... more Stimulation of serotonergic activity by tryptophan (TRP) supplementation is known to influence behavioural and physiological processes. One hundred and twenty male broiler chicks were assigned in groups of 5-24 battery cage and fed experimental diets with 0.22, 0.42 and 0.62% of digestible TRP during 21-42 d. On 42 d, birds were challenged with 2 h of transportation stress and samples were collected before or after the transportation. The results revealed that TRP increased feed intake, but had no significant effect on growth performance. Regardless of transportation, heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and corticosterone (CORT) decreased and serotonin (5-HT) elevated by increasing TRP level in diet. Breast muscle pH and colour were not affected by elevation in dietary TRP, but drip loss decreased and shear force increased. Quantification of gut microflora showed that supplementation of TRP increased Enterococci, and Bifidobacteria populations, while E. coli, Clostridia, Campylobacter and Enterobacteria populations decreased. The effect of diet on Lactobacilli population was not significant. In conclusion, feeding broilers with higher levels of TRP improves their welfare condition both before and after transportation stress, as measured by lower serum CORT and HSP70 and higher 5-HT. Increasing dietary TRP level may shift the balance of pathogenic/non-pathogenic bacteria in gut to a favourable state.

Journal of Animal Science and Technology, 2016

Background: The current study investigates the anti-stress effects of clove (Eugenia caryophyllus... more Background: The current study investigates the anti-stress effects of clove (Eugenia caryophyllus) extracts (0, 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg) on serum antioxidant biomarkers, immune response, immunological organ growth index, and expression levels of acute phase proteins (APPs); ovotransferrin (OVT), ceruloplasmin (CP), ceruloplasmin (AGP), C-reactive protein (CRP), and serum amyloid-A (SAA) mRNA in the immunological organs of 63-d-old male black-meated Silkie fowls subjected to 21 d chronic heat stress at 35 ± 2°C. Results: The results demonstrated that clove extract supplementation in the diet of Silkie fowls subjected to elevated temperature (ET) improve growth performance, immune responses, and suppressed the activities of glutathion peroxidase (GSH-Px), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and thioredoxin reductase (TXNRD); reduced serum malonaldehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) concentrations when compared with fowls raised under thermoneutral condition (TC). Upon chronic heat stress and supplementation of clove extracts, the Silkie fowls showed a linear increase in GSH-Px, SOD, CAT, and TXNRD activities (P = 0.01) compared with fowls fed diets without clove extract. ET decreased (P < 0.05) the growth index of the liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius and thymus. However, the growth index of the liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius and thymus increased significantly (P < 0.05) which corresponded to an increase in clove supplemented levels. The expression of OVT, CP, AGP, CRP, and SAA mRNA in the liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius and thymus were elevated (P < 0.01) by ET compared with those maintained at TC. Nevertheless, clove mitigates heat stressinduced overexpression of OVT, CP, AGP, CRP and SAA mRNA in the immune organs of fowls fed 400 mg clove/kg compared to other groups. Conclusions: The results showed that clove extracts supplementation decreased oxidative stress in the heatstressed black-meated fowls by alleviating negative effects of heat stress via improvement in growth performance, antioxidant defense mechanisms, immunity, and regulate the expression of acute phase genes in the liver and immunological organs.

Meat Science, 2016

Traditional halal slaughter and other forms of religious slaughter are still an issue of debate. ... more Traditional halal slaughter and other forms of religious slaughter are still an issue of debate. Opposing arguments related to pre-slaughter handling, stress and pain associated with restraint, whether the incision is painful or not, and the onset of unconsciousness have been put forward, but no consensus has been achieved. There is a need to strike a balance between halal bleeding in the light of science and animal welfare. There is a paucity of scientific data with respect to animal welfare, particularly the use of restraining devices, animal handling, and efficient halal bleeding. However, this review found that competent handling of animals, proper use of restraining devices, and the efficient bleeding process that follows halal slaughter maintains meat eating quality. In conclusion, halal bleeding, when carried out in accordance with recommended animal welfare procedures, will not only maintain the quality and wholesomeness of meat but could also potentially reduce suffering and pain. Maintained meat quality increases consumer satisfaction and food safety.

International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 2014

Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 2013

This paper has been retracted due to plagiarism issues! We are thankful to our collaborators who ... more This paper has been retracted due to plagiarism issues! We are thankful to our collaborators who detected this problem. DOI: 10.5901/ajis.2013.v2n5p129

General and comparative endocrinology, May 12, 2018

Tryptophan (Trp) has been associated with the regulation of several behavioral and physiological ... more Tryptophan (Trp) has been associated with the regulation of several behavioral and physiological processes, through stimulation of serotonergic activity. Tryptophan utilization at the metabolic level is influenced by the competitive carrier system it shares with large neutral amino acids (LNAA). This study was carried out using meat-type chicken as a model, to investigate the dose response effects of Trp/LNAA on fear response (tonic immobility; TI) and hormonal responses, including corticosterone (CORT), serotonin (5-HT), triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). A total of 12 cages (48 birds) were assigned to each of the six experimental groups at 29-42 days of age. Experimental diets were formulated to have incremental levels of Trp/LNAA (0.025, 0.030, 0.035, 0.040, 0.045, and 0.050). The results revealed that, Trp/NAA had no significant effect on growth performance and TI of the birds. However, elevation of Trp/LNAA was associated concurred with a linear reduction in CORT (P <...

Animals may experience varieties of stresses during their life-span. These stressors disturb the ... more Animals may experience varieties of stresses during their life-span. These stressors disturb the biological homeostasis and may or may not results in welfare and production impairment, depending on the coping capability of the animals. Therefore, it is of high importance to detect and evaluate the stressfulness of different daily phenomenon in animal’s life-cycle. This may assist the farmers and regulatory bodies to monitor and revise the production systems and the animal handling guidelines. One of the common physiological indicators of stress, beside the traditional corticosterone and heterophil to lymphocyte ratio, is heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) expression. Induction of HSP70 upon stress protect against the initial insult, augment recovery, and produce a state of resistance to subsequent stresses (Schafer and Williams, 2000). Previous research in chickens showed that heat stress (Soleimani et al., 2011), feed restriction (Zulkifli et al., 2002; Soleimani et al., 2012a; Najafi et al., 2015), and social isolation (Soleimani et al., 2012b) may provoke HSP70 induction. However, to our knowledge, these authors and all the available literatures to date are used tissue samples to study HSP70 expression. This approach, beside the lack of practicality, is highly invasive at the cost of animal life. Maintaining the animal is particularly important in breeding or continuous physiological studies. Recently a commercial high sensitivity enzyme-linked-immunosorbent-assay (ELISA) released for research use. This assay thus may pave the way for non-invasive measurement of HSP70 in the serum or plasma samples. However, the reactivity of such measurement to various stressors in chicken remain unclear. Therefore, the current experiment carried out to investigate the plasma HSP70 response to various stressors in broiler chickens.

Chickens in modern intensive production systems may suffer from multiple stress factors such as h... more Chickens in modern intensive production systems may suffer from multiple stress factors such as heat, handling, and transportation. These stressors are known to be negatively affecting welfare and well-being status of chickens. In search for a practical approach to alleviate the adverse effects attributed to such stressors, two experiments were conducted. The experiments were aimed to use conventional parameters together with novel and advance physiological and biotechnological measurements. In experiment 1, the influence of dietary tryptophan to large neutral amino acids ratios (TRP/LNAA) on performance, serotonin (5-HT), corticosterone (CORT), thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) of broiler chickens raised under high environmental temperature from 28-42 d were investigated. A total of 576 day-old male chicks were assigned to two controlled environments. Chicks in half of the chambers were challenged to cyclic high ambient temperature (35±1°C, 8h daily; heated), and the other h...

To measure the extent of acute and chronic stress response in Japanese quails on the performance ... more To measure the extent of acute and chronic stress response in Japanese quails on the performance and blood chemistry. An experiment was conducted, quails were fed with dietary treatment containing either DL-methionine (DLM) or 2-hydroxy-4methylthiobutanoic acid (HMTBA) at adequate (starter 0.92%, grower 0.77%) or higher (starter 1.33%, grower 1.08%) concentrations from three to six weeks of age under both normal (24°C) and elevated (33°C) environmental temperatures. Blood samples were collected at 7 hours and 21 days post heat treatment to measure the effect of acute and chronic stress response on the blood parameters. The results obtained shown that heat stress produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) effect in the quails in response significantly impaired the quails performance.

Variation in the extent of cooking time, temperature and heating source may greatly affect the po... more Variation in the extent of cooking time, temperature and heating source may greatly affect the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) double bond stability in eggs. A study was carried out to determine the oxidative stability of PUFA content of designer eggs subjected to different cooking methods. A total of 160 eggs of 4 commercial brands were obtained: A: conventional, B: DHA Gold TM , C: LTK TM , and D: Safegg TM , and equally and randomly assigned to 4 cooking methods: (i) no cooking, (ii) boiling, (iii) frying, and (iv) microwaving. The results showed that brand and cooking method significantly influenced the PUFA content in the eggs. B had the highest n-3 and n-6 PUFA contents, and the lowest n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio compared to brands A, B, and D. The brand B had the lowest malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration compared to other brands. All methods of cooking increased MDA content (P<0.05). The n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio was not affected by cooking method only in brands C and D (P>0.05). In conclusion, boiling appeared to be the most and microwaving the least suitable method of cooking for eggs, as measured by PUFA and MDA content.

Background: The current study investigates the anti-stress effects of clove (Eugenia caryophyllus... more Background: The current study investigates the anti-stress effects of clove (Eugenia caryophyllus) extracts (0, 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg) on serum antioxidant biomarkers, immune response, immunological organ growth index, and expression levels of acute phase proteins (APPs); ovotransferrin (OVT), ceruloplasmin (CP), ceruloplasmin (AGP), C-reactive protein (CRP), and serum amyloid-A (SAA) mRNA in the immunological organs of 63-d-old male black-meated Silkie fowls subjected to 21 d chronic heat stress at 35 ± 2 °C. Results: The results demonstrated that clove extract supplementation in the diet of Silkie fowls subjected to elevated temperature (ET) improve growth performance, immune responses, and suppressed the activities of glutathion peroxidase (GSH-Px), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and thioredoxin reductase (TXNRD); reduced serum malonaldehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) concentrations when compared with fowls raised under thermoneutral condition (TC). Upon chronic heat stress and supplementation of clove extracts, the Silkie fowls showed a linear increase in GSH-Px, SOD, CAT, and TXNRD activities (P = 0.01) compared with fowls fed diets without clove extract. ET decreased (P < 0.05) the growth index of the liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius and thymus. However, the growth index of the liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius and thymus increased significantly (P < 0.05) which corresponded to an increase in clove supplemented levels. The expression of OVT, CP, AGP, CRP, and SAA mRNA in the liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius and thymus were elevated (P < 0.01) by ET compared with those maintained at TC. Nevertheless, clove mitigates heat stress-induced overexpression of OVT, CP, AGP, CRP and SAA mRNA in the immune organs of fowls fed 400 mg clove/kg compared to other groups.

To measure the extent of acute and chronic stress response in Japanese quails on the performance ... more To measure the extent of acute and chronic stress response in Japanese quails on the performance and blood chemistry. An experiment was conducted, quails were fed with dietary treatment containing either DL-methionine (DLM) or 2-hydroxy-4-methylthiobutanoic acid (HMTBA) at adequate (starter 0.92%, grower 0.77%) or higher (starter 1.33%, grower 1.08%) concentrations from three to six weeks of age under both normal (24°C) and elevated (33°C) environmental temperatures. Blood samples were collected at 7 hours and 21 days post heat treatment to measure the effect of acute and chronic stress response on the blood parameters. The results obtained shown that heat stress produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) effect in the quails in response significantly impaired the quails performance.

Nigeria has a sizable population of Fulani pastoralists. Zoonotic infections like Bovine tubercul... more Nigeria has a sizable population of Fulani pastoralists.
Zoonotic infections like Bovine tuberculosis [TB] are
common among Nomadic Fulani (NF) and their livestock. Close
interaction between the nomads and their animals provide a critical
human-animal interface with potential for transmission of
zoonoses. We conducted a survey to determine the prevalence of
primary tuberculosis infection among nomads and their cattle in
Kano, north-Western Nigeria.

Infectious diseases are an important cause of morbidity and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Acce... more Infectious diseases are an important cause of morbidity
and mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Access to healthcare
among nomads has been identified as a major deterrent against
effective control, elimination and eradication of infectious diseases
in Nigeria. We conducted a community survey among nomadic
Fulanis in Kano state to determine the prevalence of commoninfectious
diseases.

A study was conducted to investigate the effects of supplementing the diet with different levels ... more A study was conducted to investigate the effects of supplementing the diet with different levels of Eucalyptus globulus leaves on hematological traits of Japanese quails. A total number of one hundred and twenty-eight (128) quails, three weeks old, were used in this experiment. The birds were placed on four treatment groups consisted of thirty-two (32) quails each. Treatment groups were: Control diet (C) (free from eucalyptus), R1: Control diet + 4g/day eucalyptus, R2: Control diet + 8g/day eucalyptus; R3: Control diet + 12g/day eucalyptus. The birds were kept for four weeks. At the end of the trial, blood samples were obtained from all quails from the brachial vein by venipuncture. Hematological traits measured were red blood cells count (RBC), hemoglobin concentration (Hgb), packed cell volume (PCV), mean cell volume (MCV), white blood cells count (WBC), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), percent lymphocytes, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), thrombocyte count, heterophils/lymphocytes (H/L) ratio, percent heterophils, monocytes, basophils, eosinophils. Results revealed that supplementing the diet of quails with different levels of eucalyptus (R1, R2 and R3) caused significant increased (P<0.05) in Hgb, PCV, MCV, MCH, MCHC, thrombocytes, and H/L ratio as compared to group C, while WBC and lymphocytes significantly decreased (P<0.05) in control group. But, there were no significant difference (P>0.05) among all experimental groups as regards heterophils, monocytes, and basophils. In conclusion, supplementing ration of quails with Eucalyptus globulus leaves led to significant improvement in most of the blood traits.

Fulani herdsmen and farmers conflicts have remained the most predominately resource-use conflict ... more Fulani herdsmen and farmers conflicts have remained the most predominately resource-use conflict in North-eastern Nigeria especially in Yobe State. The necessity to provide food of crops and animal origin, as well as raw materials for industry and export in order to meet ever-growing demands, has led to extensive use of land. The competition between these two agricultural land user-groups, however, has often times turned into serious concealed and unconcealed manifestation of hostilities and social friction in many parts of Yobe State. The conflicts have demonstrated high potential to exacerbate the insecurity and food crisis particularly in rural communities where most of the conflicts are localized, with reverberating repercussions nationwide. This study describes the traditional relationship between Fulani herdsmen and farmers in the incessant resource conflicts witnessed in Yobe State and how it affects livelihood security of those involved and resource sustainability for the local communities. The study concluded that there is the need to identify the causes, repercussions and proffered resolution of the critical issues that are at the roots of the conflicts.

Italian Journal of Animal Science, 2017

Journal of Animal Science and Technology, 2016

Meat Science, 2016

International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 2014

Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 2013

General and comparative endocrinology, May 12, 2018

Variation in the extent of cooking time, temperature and heating source may greatly affect the po... more Variation in the extent of cooking time, temperature and heating source may greatly affect the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) double bond stability in eggs. A study was carried out to determine the oxidative stability of PUFA content of designer eggs subjected to different cooking methods. A total of 160 eggs of 4 commercial brands were obtained: A: conventional, B: DHA Gold TM , C: LTK TM , and D: Safegg TM , and equally and randomly assigned to 4 cooking methods: (i) no cooking, (ii) boiling, (iii) frying, and (iv) microwaving. The results showed that brand and cooking method significantly influenced the PUFA content in the eggs. B had the highest n-3 and n-6 PUFA contents, and the lowest n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio compared to brands A, B, and D. The brand B had the lowest malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration compared to other brands. All methods of cooking increased MDA content (P<0.05). The n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio was not affected by cooking method only in brands C and D (P>0.05). In conclusion, boiling appeared to be the most and microwaving the least suitable method of cooking for eggs, as measured by PUFA and MDA content.

Background: The current study investigates the anti-stress effects of clove (Eugenia caryophyllus... more Background: The current study investigates the anti-stress effects of clove (Eugenia caryophyllus) extracts (0, 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg) on serum antioxidant biomarkers, immune response, immunological organ growth index, and expression levels of acute phase proteins (APPs); ovotransferrin (OVT), ceruloplasmin (CP), ceruloplasmin (AGP), C-reactive protein (CRP), and serum amyloid-A (SAA) mRNA in the immunological organs of 63-d-old male black-meated Silkie fowls subjected to 21 d chronic heat stress at 35 ± 2 °C. Results: The results demonstrated that clove extract supplementation in the diet of Silkie fowls subjected to elevated temperature (ET) improve growth performance, immune responses, and suppressed the activities of glutathion peroxidase (GSH-Px), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and thioredoxin reductase (TXNRD); reduced serum malonaldehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) concentrations when compared with fowls raised under thermoneutral condition (TC). Upon chronic heat stress and supplementation of clove extracts, the Silkie fowls showed a linear increase in GSH-Px, SOD, CAT, and TXNRD activities (P = 0.01) compared with fowls fed diets without clove extract. ET decreased (P < 0.05) the growth index of the liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius and thymus. However, the growth index of the liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius and thymus increased significantly (P < 0.05) which corresponded to an increase in clove supplemented levels. The expression of OVT, CP, AGP, CRP, and SAA mRNA in the liver, spleen, bursa of Fabricius and thymus were elevated (P < 0.01) by ET compared with those maintained at TC. Nevertheless, clove mitigates heat stress-induced overexpression of OVT, CP, AGP, CRP and SAA mRNA in the immune organs of fowls fed 400 mg clove/kg compared to other groups.

To measure the extent of acute and chronic stress response in Japanese quails on the performance ... more To measure the extent of acute and chronic stress response in Japanese quails on the performance and blood chemistry. An experiment was conducted, quails were fed with dietary treatment containing either DL-methionine (DLM) or 2-hydroxy-4-methylthiobutanoic acid (HMTBA) at adequate (starter 0.92%, grower 0.77%) or higher (starter 1.33%, grower 1.08%) concentrations from three to six weeks of age under both normal (24°C) and elevated (33°C) environmental temperatures. Blood samples were collected at 7 hours and 21 days post heat treatment to measure the effect of acute and chronic stress response on the blood parameters. The results obtained shown that heat stress produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) effect in the quails in response significantly impaired the quails performance.

Stimulation of serotonergic activity by tryptophan (TRP) supplementation is known to influence be... more Stimulation of serotonergic activity by tryptophan (TRP) supplementation is known to influence behavioural and physiological processes. One hundred and twenty male broiler chicks were assigned in groups of 5–24 battery cage and fed experimental diets with 0.22, 0.42 and 0.62% of digestible TRP during 21–42 d. On 42 d, birds were challenged with 2 h of transportation stress and samples were collected before or after the transportation. The results revealed that TRP increased feed intake, but had no significant effect on growth performance. Regardless of transportation, heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and corticosterone (CORT) decreased and serotonin (5-HT) elevated by increasing TRP level in diet. Breast muscle pH and colour were not affected by elevation in dietary TRP, but drip loss decreased and shear force increased. Quantification of gut microflora showed that supplementation of TRP increased Enterococci, and Bifidobacteria populations, while E. coli, Clostridia, Campylobacter and Enterobacteria populations decreased. The effect of diet on Lactobacilli population was not significant. In conclusion, feeding broilers with higher levels of TRP improves their welfare condition both before and after transportation stress, as measured by lower serum CORT and HSP70 and higher 5-HT. Increasing dietary TRP level may shift the balance of pathogenic/non-pathogenic bacteria in gut to a favourable state.

An experimental model was developed to study stress in Japanese quails. Physiological Alzet-osmot... more An experimental model was developed to study stress in Japanese quails. Physiological Alzet-osmotic pumps were used to deliver constantly adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) at a defined dosage level over specified period. Total of one hundred and twenty (120) quails were allocated into 12 pens (Three ACTH-treated pens and nine control pens; three each for NHC, PSO, SAL). Each pen contained eight experimental female quails and two extras males. The experiment was design produced five replications with two subsamples. The experiment commenced when the quails were five weeks of age. The experimental quails were assigned to received ACTH treatment via Alzet-osmotic pump calibrated to deliver 0.15 IU ACTH/g BW/day for 14 continuous days (35 to 49 d). However, the controls were neither assigned to pumps nor pseudo operated. The method used for control groups include non-handled control (NHC), pseudo-surgical method (PSO), and surgical pump implantation delivering saline (SAL) as three standard controls. It was found that constant delivery of ACTH at 0.15 IU/g BW/day for 14 days (35 to 49 d) caused elevation in plasma corticosterone (CORT), cholesterol (CHOL), glucose (GLU), triglycerides (TRI), total protein (TP), heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratio, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). The results of this experiment demonstrate that constant delivery of ACTH by Alzet-osmotic pumps is an excellent model to study stress in quails.

Anti-poverty strategy comprises of a wide range of poverty alleviation and employment generation ... more Anti-poverty strategy comprises of a wide range of poverty alleviation and employment generation
programmes, many of which have been in operation for several years and have been strengthened to
generate more employment, create productive assets, impart technical and entrepreneurial skills and raise
the income level of the poor. Under these schemes, both wage employment and self-employment are
provided to the people below the poverty line. In 1999-2000, various poverty alleviation and employment
generation programmes are grouped under two broad categories of National Directorate of Employment
and Ministry of Youths and Productivity. Funding and organisational patterns are also rationalised to
achieve better impact. These programmes are primarily meant for poverty alleviation and have generally
not been helpful in sustainable employment generation.
From an individual’s point of view, taking up self-employment before retirement as a ‘bridge job’ may be
an attractive option: older people of working age have lower re-employment probabilities conditional on
being out of work, while at the same time self-employment offers considerable flexibility as to choosing
hours of work. Foreseeable cuts in the generosity of public pensions as well as in other parts of social
security systems may in addition create the need for older workers to tap new sources of income
generation.
The self-employed work longer hours and are more flexible in their hours allocation; they retire later, but
also depend more on public pensions for retirement as opposed to the employed. While part of the
explanation of the retirement age gap may lie in access to early retirement, the self-employed choose to
retire later than employees even conditional on job characteristics and personal attributes, including
measures of health, wealth and consumption levels. We find strong evidence for postponement of
retirement for the self-employed being attributable to those that work the longest hours, conditional on job
characteristics. This is suggestive of an individual preference effect in the sense that people deriving a very
different marginal utility from work selecting into self-employment and hence wanting to work more and
retire later compared to those that pursue careers as employees. A higher attachment to work for the selfemployed
also becomes manifest in much longer job tenure for this group.
The self-employment potentials in Agriculture been the larger employer in the World are enumerated and
explained in this book and easily understood by the individual who want to establish he or her own
agricultural base enterprise(s) in any nook and cranny of Nigeria.