Hossein Atrak | Zanjan University (original) (raw)

Papers by Hossein Atrak

Research paper thumbnail of A Analysis of Backbiting in Islamic Ethics

Research paper thumbnail of Dream-Like Revelation: a Survey of the View Taking Revelation as Dream

![Research paper thumbnail of A Study of Khawjah Nasir Tusi`s Exposition of the Quranic Verses of the Hereafter Based on His Treatise Aghaz va Anjam](https://a.academia-assets.com/images/blank-paper.jpg)

Research paper thumbnail of The Origin of the Good and Our Animal Nature

We use the term "good" in two contexts: as the most general term of evaluation, and to refer to t... more We use the term "good" in two contexts: as the most general term of evaluation, and to refer to the final ends of life and action. I start from the question what evaluative and final goodness have to do with each other. Do we use the same term because when we talk about final goods, we are evaluating ends and lives? If so, how do we go about doing that? Most things are evaluated with respect to their fitness to perform their function, but ends and lives do not have functions. I contrast three theories of the final good: the intrinsic value theory, the hedonist theory, and Aristotle's account, which identifies a being's final good with its well-functioning, a form of evaluative goodness. Aristotle's theory suggests an illuminating relationship between evaluative and final goodness: a conscious being has a final good when she functions by having conscious states that track, and so enable her to pursue, her functional or evaluative goodness. It is therefore the nature of an animal to have a final good, and there are such things as final goods because there are animals. This theory explains the existence of final goods without any metaphysical appeal to intrinsic values.

Research paper thumbnail of Reconstruction of Ocean Density Distribution from its Wave Spectrum

International Journal of Fluid Mechanics Research, 2003

Research paper thumbnail of Interpreting Hobbes’s Moral Theory: Rightness, Goodness, Virtue, and Responsibility

The Journal of Ethical Reflections, 2020

The paper argues that the moral philosophy of Thomas Hobbes is unified by a complex conception of... more The paper argues that the moral philosophy of Thomas Hobbes is unified by a complex conception of reason that imposes consistency norms of both rationality and reasonableness. Hobbes's conceptions of rightness as reciprocity, and moral goodness as sociability belong to an original and attractive moral theory that is neither teleological nor classically deontological, nor as interpreters have variously argued, subjectivist, contractarian, egoist, or dependent on divine command.

Research paper thumbnail of مراتب خلقت از دیدگاه آیات و روایات

مطابق آیات و روایات، عالم تکوین در دو بخش عالم انوار و عالم اجسام خلق شده است. عالم اجسام متوقف و... more مطابق آیات و روایات، عالم تکوین در دو بخش عالم انوار و عالم اجسام خلق شده است. عالم اجسام متوقف و وابسته به عالم انوار و عالم انوار مدبر آن است. اولین مخلوق خداوند، نور وجودی حضرت محمد صلی‌الله‌علیه‌و‌آله است که همه چیز از آن‌پیدا شده و اصل عالم خلقت است. تعابیر مختلفی چون عقل، نور، روح و قلم درباره آن به کار رفته است. انوار حضرت امیرالمؤمنین علیه‌السلام ، فاطمه علیهاالسلام ، ائمه اطهار، انوار 124 هزار پیامبر، عرش، کرسی، لوح، بهشت و انوار مؤمنین از نور وجودی پیامبر اکرم صلی‌الله‌علیه‌و‌آله آفریده شده است. آب اولین مخلوق در عالم اجسام است که با واسطه از نور پیامبر صلی‌الله‌علیه‌و‌آله خلق شده و از آن تمام این عالم ماده در شش روز از ایام ربوبی پدید آمده است

Research paper thumbnail of Educating for Individual Freedom and Democratic Citizenship: In Unity and Diversity There Is Strength

Oxford Handbooks Online, 2009

This article addresses contentious questions concerning individual freedom and democratic citizen... more This article addresses contentious questions concerning individual freedom and democratic citizenship education in the contemporary circumstances of multiculturalism. It suggests that educating children for civic equality is an ambitious aim for any democracy and not one that can ever be realized once and for all. It provides evidence that multicultural conditions can challenge the very aim of educating children for civic equality. It explains that democracies are variously multicultural and the varieties of groups make a difference in the kind of education and the progress toward civic equality that can realistically be expected at any time.

Research paper thumbnail of The Sources of Moral Knowledge in Ibn ʿArabī’s Thought

This article, using a descriptive-analytic method, introduces the ideas of Ibn ʿArabī in moral ep... more This article, using a descriptive-analytic method, introduces the ideas of Ibn ʿArabī in moral epistemology while focusing on the sources of moral knowledge and explaining how man utilizes these sources in order to achieve a moral life. The findings of the research show that Ibn ʿArabī considers moral knowledge to be objective and presents the Realm of Fixed Entities (Ayan Thabete) as the thing-in-itself of moral realities. In his writings, though scattered, he clearly considers five things as the sources of moral knowledge: nature, intellect, heart, soul and revelation. However, these sources are not at equal levels and the distinction of revelation and the human soul over the other sources is apparent. Comparing these two sources, one can conclude from Ibn ʿArabī’s writings that revelation is the source of religious legislative guidance and is the result of God’s direct communication with the prophets and is the path of knowledge to perfect unity. God’s special servants (Valīyy-u ...

Research paper thumbnail of Qadi ”Abdul-Jabbar al-Mu”tazili’s Moral Theory

Journal of Philosophical Theological Research, Nov 22, 2007

Research paper thumbnail of Are There Limits to Free Speech?

Analytische Explikationen & Interventionen, 2021

In September 2017 Harvard's Kennedy School withdrew Chelsea Manning's appointment as a visiting f... more In September 2017 Harvard's Kennedy School withdrew Chelsea Manning's appointment as a visiting fellow after then CIA Director [and later Secretary of State] Mike Pompeo called her a "traitor" and cancelled a lecture he had been scheduled to give at the school. At present, however, and in contrast to this tradition, in many parts of the world today, today the most vigorous opposition to freedom of speech comes from a section of the left. Here again are three recent examples from the United States, all of which occurred in 2017: 1) At Middlebury College, in Vermont, protesters shouted down Charles Murray, co-author of the controversial book The Bell Curve, about race and IQ, and his host, Allison Stanger, a professor of international politics and economics at the college, suffered whiplash injuries and concussion after being pushed and jostled as she and Murray were leaving. 2) At Berkeley, a planned event featuring the alt-right journalist Milo Yiannopolis was cancelled after violent protests. 3) Outside the universities, James Damore, a software engineer at Google, was fired after he circulated a memo suggesting that there are differences between men and women that may explain, in part, why there are fewer women than men in his field of work. Some will argue that although the restrictions of freedom of speech by the right are indefensible, those by the left are intended to protect disadvantaged, threatened or marginalized groups and so are justifiable. Should we agree that some speakers cross a line, and should not be tolerated? *** In discussing that question, I begin with a disclosure: I have myself been thought to cross the line, and to express views that should not be tolerated. In a chapter of my book Practical Ethics, first published in English in 1979, I discuss the ethics of treating severely disabled newborn infants. I had become aware that in several countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia, medical staff in neonatal intensive care units sometimes suggest to parents that the prognosis for their child is so poor that they should 45

Research paper thumbnail of A Study and Critique of the «Tark-i Awlà» Approach in Justifying Prophets' Lapses

Pizhūhish/hā-yi Falsafī- Kalāmī, 2018

Ḥossein Atrak* Received: 10/07/2017 | Accepted: 06/10/2018 Abstract This article delves ... more Ḥossein Atrak* Received: 10/07/2017 | Accepted: 06/10/2018 Abstract This article delves into the study of the term «tark-i awlà» (abandoning performance of that which is better and doing that which is less than better) as an approach for defending the infallibility of the prophets when confronting verses from the Holy Qur'ān that apparently prove the prophets committed sins; and after going into the semantics of «tark-i awlà», the following question has been made the focus of discussion and study: are the intellectual arguments proving the infalliblity of the Prophets in agreement with the fact that the prophets committed tark-i awlà? According to the author, considering that tark-i awlà is a type of error and lapse and because the intellectual arguments for infallibility (like the trust and certitude of the people, the guiding purpose of prophet hood, the necessity of following the prophets, the principle of luṭf (grace) and absence of disinclination in the hearts of t...

Research paper thumbnail of An Argument in Defense of Voluntary Euthanasia

One of the most challenging issues in medical ethics is a permission or prohibition of euthanasia... more One of the most challenging issues in medical ethics is a permission or prohibition of euthanasia. Is a patient with an incurable disease who has lots of pain permitted to kill oneself or ask others to do that? The main reason advanced by the opponents is the absolute prohibition of murder. Accordingly, the meaning of murder plays a key role in determining the moral judgment of euthanasia. The aim of this paper is to confirm the role of intention in moral judgment of euthanasia and eliminate the name of unjust murder from voluntary euthanasia. The Intention of an agent determines the name of the act and whether it is right or wrong. An important point that dose not taken into account in the definitions of murder, killing as well as their ethical judgment is considering the attributes of being unjust and forcible. Killing a human being is neither intrinsically good nor bad, but its ethical judgment depends on the way that happens, i.e. just or unjust. Every killing is neither bad nor unethical except unjust one which is both bad and unethical. The attribute of "unjust" has been mentioned in the definition of murder in Islamic jurisprudence, law, traditions, and Quran. Owing to this argument, on one hand, it is true to state that voluntary euthanasia is not unjust and forcible murder (the test of correct negation), and on the other hand, it is not true to say that voluntary euthanasia is unjust and forcible murder (the test of incorrect predication). It can be concluded that voluntary euthanasia is an independent title other than unjust murder and does not have its judgment.

Research paper thumbnail of منشأ الزامهای اخلاقی از نظر کریستین کرسگارد

یکی از موضوعات فرا اخلاقی، بحث از منشأ الزام‌های اخلاقی است. مسئله این است که الزام‌های اخلاقی، ی... more یکی از موضوعات فرا اخلاقی، بحث از منشأ الزام‌های اخلاقی است. مسئله این است که الزام‌های اخلاقی، یعنی بایدها و نبایدهای اخلاقی از کجا ناشی می‌شوند؟ به باور خانم کریستین کرسگارد، فیلسوف معاصر آمریکایی، منشأ الزام‌های اخلاقی هویت اخلاقی انسان و انسانیت انسان است. انسان به دلیل خودآگاهی‌اش به صرف میل به چیزی آن را انجام نمی‌دهد، بلکه از خود می‌پرسد که آیا درست است که مطابق میل خویش رفتار کنم؟ کرسگارد که همانند کانت به ارزش ذاتی انسانیت معتقد است، می‌گوید که دلایل ما برای انجام‌دادن چیزی را هویت و طبیعت ما مشخص می‌کند. هویت ما به‌عنوان انسان، زن یا مرد، عضوی از قوم یا نژاد، دین خاص یا طبقه اجتماعی خاص و ... الزام‌های نامشروطی را بر ما تحمیل می‌کنند. بنابراین، از نظر کرسگارد هویت ما به‌عنوان یک انسان منشأ هنجارها و الزام‌های اخلاقی ماست. نقض این الزام‌ها به‌معنای از دست‌دادن هویت ماست. انسانیت بخش مهم هویت ماست. به نظر می‌رسد افزون بر برخی اشکال‌ها بر نظریه اخلاقی کرسگارد، ایرادهای وارد بر نظریه اخلاقی کانت نیز بر آن وارد است؛ از جمله اینکه اصل انسانیت و هویت عملی انسانی نمی‌تواند همیشه ب...

Research paper thumbnail of God in Plato's Philosophy

Philosophical Investigations, 2021

There are different meanings of the word "God" that have been used by philosophers thro... more There are different meanings of the word "God" that have been used by philosophers throughout the history of philosophy, such as theism, pantheism, panentheism, deism, and etc. The subject of this paper is the concept of "God" in Plato's philosophy. Considering Plato's different treatises that have the most theological material, it can be said that he has not meant a single concept of this word. In The Republic, given the characteristics that have been attributed to God, like simplicity, transcendental, it seems that his conception of God is close to theism. In Phaedo, since Plato does not give any role to the gods, it seems that we are encountered a Plato without God. In Timaeus, we encounter two candidates, Demiurge and the world's soul. Some philosophers consider Demiurge as a myth and the world's soul as Plato's God. According to this view, Plato can be regarded as the source of inspiration for the Pannanteists. In contrast, some other bel...

Research paper thumbnail of The Reliability and the Purpos- Refutation Arguments in Proving Prophets' Infallibility: A Critical Survey

پژوهشنامه فلسفه دین, 2020

The Reliability Argument and the Purpose-Refutation Argument are the two most important logical a... more The Reliability Argument and the Purpose-Refutation Argument are the two most important logical arguments that have been alleged by Islamic theologians, and Shia in particular, for proving divine prophets' infallibility. According to the Purpose-Refutation Argument, if prophets were not infallible, God's purpose in sending them for guiding people would be unattainable, because in this case, people by following the examples of prophets, would be led astray and consequently commit sins. Based on the Reliability Argument, if prophets commit sins, have mistakes, and fade into oblivion, people would lose their confidence in them. For that reason, prophets must be completely infallible and incapable of sinning (minor or major). This paper argues that there are some serious objections to these two arguments: People can rely on prophets without any need of their absolute infallibility; God can attain His goal by sending fallible prophets; The arguments involve is/ought fallacy, and ...

Research paper thumbnail of A Comparative Study between the Attributes of Jesus in Christian Theology and Muhammadan Reality in Islamic Theosophy

Philosophical Investigations

< p >In this paper, the attributes of Jesus as the second person of Trinity in Christianity... more < p >In this paper, the attributes of Jesus as the second person of Trinity in Christianity and Muhammadan Reality in Islamic Theosophy were compared. The term ''Muhammadan Reality'' in Islamic Theosophy refers to transcendental and divine being of Muhammad rather than his human and historic existence. According to this research, both Jesus and Muhammadan Realities have divine attributes. They are lights of God, the Word or the Pen of God, the creators of the word, omniscience, omnipotent, omnibenevolent as well as the intermediaries between God and humans. In this study, it is demonstrated that what happened to Jesus in Christianity, it has also happened to Muhammad in Islamic theosophy with some differences. The influence of Greek philosophy, especially Platonic, in ascribing these attributes to Jesus in Christianity and Muhammad in Islamic theosophy is undeniable. There is a strong temptation among the scholars of both religions, Islam and Christianity, to extend Jesus and Muhammad to the level of divinity and godhead.

Research paper thumbnail of Muslim Moralists’ Contributions to Moderation Theory in Ethics

The Journal of Ethical Reflections (JER), Summer 2020. 1(2): 69-92, 2020

Originally introduced by Plato and Aristotle, Moderation Theory in Ethics is the most prevalent t... more Originally introduced by Plato and Aristotle, Moderation Theory in Ethics is the most prevalent theory of ethics among Islamic scholars. Moderation Theory suggests that every virtue or excellence of character lies in the mean between two vices: excess or defect. Every ethical virtue comes from moderation in actions or emotions and every ethical vice comes from excess or defect. This paper suggests that while Islamic scholars have been influenced by this doctrine, they have also developed and re-conceptualized it in innovative ways. Kindī, Miskawayh, Avicenna, Rāghib Isfahānī, Nasīr al-Dīn Ṭusī, and others are among the Islamic contributors to the subject. Some of their innovations in this theory are as follows: bringing together Aristotle's doctrine of the mean with Plato's psychology (by Kindī), dividing virtues into four higher genuses, dividing vices into eight higher genuses, setting various kinds of vices and virtues under these higher genuses (by Miskawayh), adding the...

Research paper thumbnail of Lying to patients from benevolent motives

Iranian Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine, 2012

Telling the truth to patients is a key issue in medical ethics. Today, most physicians hold that ... more Telling the truth to patients is a key issue in medical ethics. Today, most physicians hold that truth-telling to patients is crucial, and that lying to patients or withholding information from them is not acceptable. It seems, however, that absolute and unconditional truth-telling is not always possible, and it may not be feasible to tell some patients certain truths under some circumstances. Although truth-telling is a rudimentary principle in ethics, it is allowed to withhold truth or even to tell lies in some circumstances. From the point of view of reason and tradition, lying under certain circumstances is allowed; for instance when one is disinclined to tell the truth, or in emergencies where truth-telling might lead to loss of life, property or someone's reputation, and when truth may involve two adequately unpleasant situations. In my opinion, it is necessary to tell the truth, regardless of possible harms, when continuation of treatment, or the patient's cooperation and consent depend on it, and also when the truth which needs to be told to a patient is the incurability of his disease and therefore his inevitable death,. In other cases, however, when there are truths such as severity of disease, death of others in the accident, family problems outside the hospital, predicted survival time, and other possible diagnoses, the truth can be withheld and the patient can even be lied to if there is any risk of harm to the patient.

Research paper thumbnail of Intention Involvement in the Nature of Plagiarism

This article, in the field of research ethics, deals with the nature of plagiarism and the involv... more This article, in the field of research ethics, deals with the nature of plagiarism and the involvement of author’s intention in the act of plagiarizing. The problem is whether an author’s intention to plagiarize, in addition to the awareness of the act of plagiarism, is involved in the nature of plagiarism or not? In other words, is an unintentional plagiarism, the one without awareness, an instance of a real plagiarism? In this paper, I attempted to address this issue by providing literature review, additional explanations, and the possible discussions. At the end some solutions are introduced.

Research paper thumbnail of A Analysis of Backbiting in Islamic Ethics

Research paper thumbnail of Dream-Like Revelation: a Survey of the View Taking Revelation as Dream

![Research paper thumbnail of A Study of Khawjah Nasir Tusi`s Exposition of the Quranic Verses of the Hereafter Based on His Treatise Aghaz va Anjam](https://a.academia-assets.com/images/blank-paper.jpg)

Research paper thumbnail of The Origin of the Good and Our Animal Nature

We use the term "good" in two contexts: as the most general term of evaluation, and to refer to t... more We use the term "good" in two contexts: as the most general term of evaluation, and to refer to the final ends of life and action. I start from the question what evaluative and final goodness have to do with each other. Do we use the same term because when we talk about final goods, we are evaluating ends and lives? If so, how do we go about doing that? Most things are evaluated with respect to their fitness to perform their function, but ends and lives do not have functions. I contrast three theories of the final good: the intrinsic value theory, the hedonist theory, and Aristotle's account, which identifies a being's final good with its well-functioning, a form of evaluative goodness. Aristotle's theory suggests an illuminating relationship between evaluative and final goodness: a conscious being has a final good when she functions by having conscious states that track, and so enable her to pursue, her functional or evaluative goodness. It is therefore the nature of an animal to have a final good, and there are such things as final goods because there are animals. This theory explains the existence of final goods without any metaphysical appeal to intrinsic values.

Research paper thumbnail of Reconstruction of Ocean Density Distribution from its Wave Spectrum

International Journal of Fluid Mechanics Research, 2003

Research paper thumbnail of Interpreting Hobbes’s Moral Theory: Rightness, Goodness, Virtue, and Responsibility

The Journal of Ethical Reflections, 2020

The paper argues that the moral philosophy of Thomas Hobbes is unified by a complex conception of... more The paper argues that the moral philosophy of Thomas Hobbes is unified by a complex conception of reason that imposes consistency norms of both rationality and reasonableness. Hobbes's conceptions of rightness as reciprocity, and moral goodness as sociability belong to an original and attractive moral theory that is neither teleological nor classically deontological, nor as interpreters have variously argued, subjectivist, contractarian, egoist, or dependent on divine command.

Research paper thumbnail of مراتب خلقت از دیدگاه آیات و روایات

مطابق آیات و روایات، عالم تکوین در دو بخش عالم انوار و عالم اجسام خلق شده است. عالم اجسام متوقف و... more مطابق آیات و روایات، عالم تکوین در دو بخش عالم انوار و عالم اجسام خلق شده است. عالم اجسام متوقف و وابسته به عالم انوار و عالم انوار مدبر آن است. اولین مخلوق خداوند، نور وجودی حضرت محمد صلی‌الله‌علیه‌و‌آله است که همه چیز از آن‌پیدا شده و اصل عالم خلقت است. تعابیر مختلفی چون عقل، نور، روح و قلم درباره آن به کار رفته است. انوار حضرت امیرالمؤمنین علیه‌السلام ، فاطمه علیهاالسلام ، ائمه اطهار، انوار 124 هزار پیامبر، عرش، کرسی، لوح، بهشت و انوار مؤمنین از نور وجودی پیامبر اکرم صلی‌الله‌علیه‌و‌آله آفریده شده است. آب اولین مخلوق در عالم اجسام است که با واسطه از نور پیامبر صلی‌الله‌علیه‌و‌آله خلق شده و از آن تمام این عالم ماده در شش روز از ایام ربوبی پدید آمده است

Research paper thumbnail of Educating for Individual Freedom and Democratic Citizenship: In Unity and Diversity There Is Strength

Oxford Handbooks Online, 2009

This article addresses contentious questions concerning individual freedom and democratic citizen... more This article addresses contentious questions concerning individual freedom and democratic citizenship education in the contemporary circumstances of multiculturalism. It suggests that educating children for civic equality is an ambitious aim for any democracy and not one that can ever be realized once and for all. It provides evidence that multicultural conditions can challenge the very aim of educating children for civic equality. It explains that democracies are variously multicultural and the varieties of groups make a difference in the kind of education and the progress toward civic equality that can realistically be expected at any time.

Research paper thumbnail of The Sources of Moral Knowledge in Ibn ʿArabī’s Thought

This article, using a descriptive-analytic method, introduces the ideas of Ibn ʿArabī in moral ep... more This article, using a descriptive-analytic method, introduces the ideas of Ibn ʿArabī in moral epistemology while focusing on the sources of moral knowledge and explaining how man utilizes these sources in order to achieve a moral life. The findings of the research show that Ibn ʿArabī considers moral knowledge to be objective and presents the Realm of Fixed Entities (Ayan Thabete) as the thing-in-itself of moral realities. In his writings, though scattered, he clearly considers five things as the sources of moral knowledge: nature, intellect, heart, soul and revelation. However, these sources are not at equal levels and the distinction of revelation and the human soul over the other sources is apparent. Comparing these two sources, one can conclude from Ibn ʿArabī’s writings that revelation is the source of religious legislative guidance and is the result of God’s direct communication with the prophets and is the path of knowledge to perfect unity. God’s special servants (Valīyy-u ...

Research paper thumbnail of Qadi ”Abdul-Jabbar al-Mu”tazili’s Moral Theory

Journal of Philosophical Theological Research, Nov 22, 2007

Research paper thumbnail of Are There Limits to Free Speech?

Analytische Explikationen & Interventionen, 2021

In September 2017 Harvard's Kennedy School withdrew Chelsea Manning's appointment as a visiting f... more In September 2017 Harvard's Kennedy School withdrew Chelsea Manning's appointment as a visiting fellow after then CIA Director [and later Secretary of State] Mike Pompeo called her a "traitor" and cancelled a lecture he had been scheduled to give at the school. At present, however, and in contrast to this tradition, in many parts of the world today, today the most vigorous opposition to freedom of speech comes from a section of the left. Here again are three recent examples from the United States, all of which occurred in 2017: 1) At Middlebury College, in Vermont, protesters shouted down Charles Murray, co-author of the controversial book The Bell Curve, about race and IQ, and his host, Allison Stanger, a professor of international politics and economics at the college, suffered whiplash injuries and concussion after being pushed and jostled as she and Murray were leaving. 2) At Berkeley, a planned event featuring the alt-right journalist Milo Yiannopolis was cancelled after violent protests. 3) Outside the universities, James Damore, a software engineer at Google, was fired after he circulated a memo suggesting that there are differences between men and women that may explain, in part, why there are fewer women than men in his field of work. Some will argue that although the restrictions of freedom of speech by the right are indefensible, those by the left are intended to protect disadvantaged, threatened or marginalized groups and so are justifiable. Should we agree that some speakers cross a line, and should not be tolerated? *** In discussing that question, I begin with a disclosure: I have myself been thought to cross the line, and to express views that should not be tolerated. In a chapter of my book Practical Ethics, first published in English in 1979, I discuss the ethics of treating severely disabled newborn infants. I had become aware that in several countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia, medical staff in neonatal intensive care units sometimes suggest to parents that the prognosis for their child is so poor that they should 45

Research paper thumbnail of A Study and Critique of the «Tark-i Awlà» Approach in Justifying Prophets' Lapses

Pizhūhish/hā-yi Falsafī- Kalāmī, 2018

Ḥossein Atrak* Received: 10/07/2017 | Accepted: 06/10/2018 Abstract This article delves ... more Ḥossein Atrak* Received: 10/07/2017 | Accepted: 06/10/2018 Abstract This article delves into the study of the term «tark-i awlà» (abandoning performance of that which is better and doing that which is less than better) as an approach for defending the infallibility of the prophets when confronting verses from the Holy Qur'ān that apparently prove the prophets committed sins; and after going into the semantics of «tark-i awlà», the following question has been made the focus of discussion and study: are the intellectual arguments proving the infalliblity of the Prophets in agreement with the fact that the prophets committed tark-i awlà? According to the author, considering that tark-i awlà is a type of error and lapse and because the intellectual arguments for infallibility (like the trust and certitude of the people, the guiding purpose of prophet hood, the necessity of following the prophets, the principle of luṭf (grace) and absence of disinclination in the hearts of t...

Research paper thumbnail of An Argument in Defense of Voluntary Euthanasia

One of the most challenging issues in medical ethics is a permission or prohibition of euthanasia... more One of the most challenging issues in medical ethics is a permission or prohibition of euthanasia. Is a patient with an incurable disease who has lots of pain permitted to kill oneself or ask others to do that? The main reason advanced by the opponents is the absolute prohibition of murder. Accordingly, the meaning of murder plays a key role in determining the moral judgment of euthanasia. The aim of this paper is to confirm the role of intention in moral judgment of euthanasia and eliminate the name of unjust murder from voluntary euthanasia. The Intention of an agent determines the name of the act and whether it is right or wrong. An important point that dose not taken into account in the definitions of murder, killing as well as their ethical judgment is considering the attributes of being unjust and forcible. Killing a human being is neither intrinsically good nor bad, but its ethical judgment depends on the way that happens, i.e. just or unjust. Every killing is neither bad nor unethical except unjust one which is both bad and unethical. The attribute of "unjust" has been mentioned in the definition of murder in Islamic jurisprudence, law, traditions, and Quran. Owing to this argument, on one hand, it is true to state that voluntary euthanasia is not unjust and forcible murder (the test of correct negation), and on the other hand, it is not true to say that voluntary euthanasia is unjust and forcible murder (the test of incorrect predication). It can be concluded that voluntary euthanasia is an independent title other than unjust murder and does not have its judgment.

Research paper thumbnail of منشأ الزامهای اخلاقی از نظر کریستین کرسگارد

یکی از موضوعات فرا اخلاقی، بحث از منشأ الزام‌های اخلاقی است. مسئله این است که الزام‌های اخلاقی، ی... more یکی از موضوعات فرا اخلاقی، بحث از منشأ الزام‌های اخلاقی است. مسئله این است که الزام‌های اخلاقی، یعنی بایدها و نبایدهای اخلاقی از کجا ناشی می‌شوند؟ به باور خانم کریستین کرسگارد، فیلسوف معاصر آمریکایی، منشأ الزام‌های اخلاقی هویت اخلاقی انسان و انسانیت انسان است. انسان به دلیل خودآگاهی‌اش به صرف میل به چیزی آن را انجام نمی‌دهد، بلکه از خود می‌پرسد که آیا درست است که مطابق میل خویش رفتار کنم؟ کرسگارد که همانند کانت به ارزش ذاتی انسانیت معتقد است، می‌گوید که دلایل ما برای انجام‌دادن چیزی را هویت و طبیعت ما مشخص می‌کند. هویت ما به‌عنوان انسان، زن یا مرد، عضوی از قوم یا نژاد، دین خاص یا طبقه اجتماعی خاص و ... الزام‌های نامشروطی را بر ما تحمیل می‌کنند. بنابراین، از نظر کرسگارد هویت ما به‌عنوان یک انسان منشأ هنجارها و الزام‌های اخلاقی ماست. نقض این الزام‌ها به‌معنای از دست‌دادن هویت ماست. انسانیت بخش مهم هویت ماست. به نظر می‌رسد افزون بر برخی اشکال‌ها بر نظریه اخلاقی کرسگارد، ایرادهای وارد بر نظریه اخلاقی کانت نیز بر آن وارد است؛ از جمله اینکه اصل انسانیت و هویت عملی انسانی نمی‌تواند همیشه ب...

Research paper thumbnail of God in Plato's Philosophy

Philosophical Investigations, 2021

There are different meanings of the word "God" that have been used by philosophers thro... more There are different meanings of the word "God" that have been used by philosophers throughout the history of philosophy, such as theism, pantheism, panentheism, deism, and etc. The subject of this paper is the concept of "God" in Plato's philosophy. Considering Plato's different treatises that have the most theological material, it can be said that he has not meant a single concept of this word. In The Republic, given the characteristics that have been attributed to God, like simplicity, transcendental, it seems that his conception of God is close to theism. In Phaedo, since Plato does not give any role to the gods, it seems that we are encountered a Plato without God. In Timaeus, we encounter two candidates, Demiurge and the world's soul. Some philosophers consider Demiurge as a myth and the world's soul as Plato's God. According to this view, Plato can be regarded as the source of inspiration for the Pannanteists. In contrast, some other bel...

Research paper thumbnail of The Reliability and the Purpos- Refutation Arguments in Proving Prophets' Infallibility: A Critical Survey

پژوهشنامه فلسفه دین, 2020

The Reliability Argument and the Purpose-Refutation Argument are the two most important logical a... more The Reliability Argument and the Purpose-Refutation Argument are the two most important logical arguments that have been alleged by Islamic theologians, and Shia in particular, for proving divine prophets' infallibility. According to the Purpose-Refutation Argument, if prophets were not infallible, God's purpose in sending them for guiding people would be unattainable, because in this case, people by following the examples of prophets, would be led astray and consequently commit sins. Based on the Reliability Argument, if prophets commit sins, have mistakes, and fade into oblivion, people would lose their confidence in them. For that reason, prophets must be completely infallible and incapable of sinning (minor or major). This paper argues that there are some serious objections to these two arguments: People can rely on prophets without any need of their absolute infallibility; God can attain His goal by sending fallible prophets; The arguments involve is/ought fallacy, and ...

Research paper thumbnail of A Comparative Study between the Attributes of Jesus in Christian Theology and Muhammadan Reality in Islamic Theosophy

Philosophical Investigations

< p >In this paper, the attributes of Jesus as the second person of Trinity in Christianity... more < p >In this paper, the attributes of Jesus as the second person of Trinity in Christianity and Muhammadan Reality in Islamic Theosophy were compared. The term ''Muhammadan Reality'' in Islamic Theosophy refers to transcendental and divine being of Muhammad rather than his human and historic existence. According to this research, both Jesus and Muhammadan Realities have divine attributes. They are lights of God, the Word or the Pen of God, the creators of the word, omniscience, omnipotent, omnibenevolent as well as the intermediaries between God and humans. In this study, it is demonstrated that what happened to Jesus in Christianity, it has also happened to Muhammad in Islamic theosophy with some differences. The influence of Greek philosophy, especially Platonic, in ascribing these attributes to Jesus in Christianity and Muhammad in Islamic theosophy is undeniable. There is a strong temptation among the scholars of both religions, Islam and Christianity, to extend Jesus and Muhammad to the level of divinity and godhead.

Research paper thumbnail of Muslim Moralists’ Contributions to Moderation Theory in Ethics

The Journal of Ethical Reflections (JER), Summer 2020. 1(2): 69-92, 2020

Originally introduced by Plato and Aristotle, Moderation Theory in Ethics is the most prevalent t... more Originally introduced by Plato and Aristotle, Moderation Theory in Ethics is the most prevalent theory of ethics among Islamic scholars. Moderation Theory suggests that every virtue or excellence of character lies in the mean between two vices: excess or defect. Every ethical virtue comes from moderation in actions or emotions and every ethical vice comes from excess or defect. This paper suggests that while Islamic scholars have been influenced by this doctrine, they have also developed and re-conceptualized it in innovative ways. Kindī, Miskawayh, Avicenna, Rāghib Isfahānī, Nasīr al-Dīn Ṭusī, and others are among the Islamic contributors to the subject. Some of their innovations in this theory are as follows: bringing together Aristotle's doctrine of the mean with Plato's psychology (by Kindī), dividing virtues into four higher genuses, dividing vices into eight higher genuses, setting various kinds of vices and virtues under these higher genuses (by Miskawayh), adding the...

Research paper thumbnail of Lying to patients from benevolent motives

Iranian Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine, 2012

Telling the truth to patients is a key issue in medical ethics. Today, most physicians hold that ... more Telling the truth to patients is a key issue in medical ethics. Today, most physicians hold that truth-telling to patients is crucial, and that lying to patients or withholding information from them is not acceptable. It seems, however, that absolute and unconditional truth-telling is not always possible, and it may not be feasible to tell some patients certain truths under some circumstances. Although truth-telling is a rudimentary principle in ethics, it is allowed to withhold truth or even to tell lies in some circumstances. From the point of view of reason and tradition, lying under certain circumstances is allowed; for instance when one is disinclined to tell the truth, or in emergencies where truth-telling might lead to loss of life, property or someone's reputation, and when truth may involve two adequately unpleasant situations. In my opinion, it is necessary to tell the truth, regardless of possible harms, when continuation of treatment, or the patient's cooperation and consent depend on it, and also when the truth which needs to be told to a patient is the incurability of his disease and therefore his inevitable death,. In other cases, however, when there are truths such as severity of disease, death of others in the accident, family problems outside the hospital, predicted survival time, and other possible diagnoses, the truth can be withheld and the patient can even be lied to if there is any risk of harm to the patient.

Research paper thumbnail of Intention Involvement in the Nature of Plagiarism

This article, in the field of research ethics, deals with the nature of plagiarism and the involv... more This article, in the field of research ethics, deals with the nature of plagiarism and the involvement of author’s intention in the act of plagiarizing. The problem is whether an author’s intention to plagiarize, in addition to the awareness of the act of plagiarism, is involved in the nature of plagiarism or not? In other words, is an unintentional plagiarism, the one without awareness, an instance of a real plagiarism? In this paper, I attempted to address this issue by providing literature review, additional explanations, and the possible discussions. At the end some solutions are introduced.