9.4. decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic — Python v3.1.5 documentation (original) (raw)

The decimal module provides support for decimal floating point arithmetic. It offers several advantages over the float datatype:

The module design is centered around three concepts: the decimal number, the context for arithmetic, and signals.

A decimal number is immutable. It has a sign, coefficient digits, and an exponent. To preserve significance, the coefficient digits do not truncate trailing zeros. Decimals also include special values such asInfinity, -Infinity, and NaN. The standard also differentiates -0 from +0.

The context for arithmetic is an environment specifying precision, rounding rules, limits on exponents, flags indicating the results of operations, and trap enablers which determine whether signals are treated as exceptions. Rounding options include ROUND_CEILING, ROUND_DOWN,ROUND_FLOOR, ROUND_HALF_DOWN, ROUND_HALF_EVEN,ROUND_HALF_UP, ROUND_UP, and ROUND_05UP.

Signals are groups of exceptional conditions arising during the course of computation. Depending on the needs of the application, signals may be ignored, considered as informational, or treated as exceptions. The signals in the decimal module are: Clamped, InvalidOperation,DivisionByZero, Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal,Overflow, and Underflow.

For each signal there is a flag and a trap enabler. When a signal is encountered, its flag is set to one, then, if the trap enabler is set to one, an exception is raised. Flags are sticky, so the user needs to reset them before monitoring a calculation.

See also

9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial

The usual start to using decimals is importing the module, viewing the current context with getcontext() and, if necessary, setting new values for precision, rounding, or enabled traps:

from decimal import * getcontext() Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999999, Emax=999999999, capitals=1, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero, InvalidOperation])

getcontext().prec = 7 # Set a new precision

Decimal instances can be constructed from integers, strings, or tuples. To create a Decimal from a float, first convert it to a string. This serves as an explicit reminder of the details of the conversion (including representation error). Decimal numbers include special values such asNaN which stands for “Not a number”, positive and negativeInfinity, and -0.

getcontext().prec = 28 Decimal(10) Decimal('10') Decimal('3.14') Decimal('3.14') Decimal((0, (3, 1, 4), -2)) Decimal('3.14') Decimal(str(2.0 ** 0.5)) Decimal('1.41421356237') Decimal(2) ** Decimal('0.5') Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724') Decimal('NaN') Decimal('NaN') Decimal('-Infinity') Decimal('-Infinity')

The significance of a new Decimal is determined solely by the number of digits input. Context precision and rounding only come into play during arithmetic operations.

getcontext().prec = 6 Decimal('3.0') Decimal('3.0') Decimal('3.1415926535') Decimal('3.1415926535') Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285') Decimal('5.85987') getcontext().rounding = ROUND_UP Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285') Decimal('5.85988')

Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python. Here is a small decimal floating point flying circus:

data = list(map(Decimal, '1.34 1.87 3.45 2.35 1.00 0.03 9.25'.split())) max(data) Decimal('9.25') min(data) Decimal('0.03') sorted(data) [Decimal('0.03'), Decimal('1.00'), Decimal('1.34'), Decimal('1.87'), Decimal('2.35'), Decimal('3.45'), Decimal('9.25')] sum(data) Decimal('19.29') a,b,c = data[:3] str(a) '1.34' float(a) 1.34 round(a, 1) Decimal('1.3') int(a) 1 a * 5 Decimal('6.70') a * b Decimal('2.5058') c % a Decimal('0.77')

And some mathematical functions are also available to Decimal:

getcontext().prec = 28 Decimal(2).sqrt() Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724') Decimal(1).exp() Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471') Decimal('10').ln() Decimal('2.302585092994045684017991455') Decimal('10').log10() Decimal('1')

The quantize() method rounds a number to a fixed exponent. This method is useful for monetary applications that often round results to a fixed number of places:

Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('.01'), rounding=ROUND_DOWN) Decimal('7.32') Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('1.'), rounding=ROUND_UP) Decimal('8')

As shown above, the getcontext() function accesses the current context and allows the settings to be changed. This approach meets the needs of most applications.

For more advanced work, it may be useful to create alternate contexts using the Context() constructor. To make an alternate active, use the setcontext()function.

In accordance with the standard, the Decimal module provides two ready to use standard contexts, BasicContext and ExtendedContext. The former is especially useful for debugging because many of the traps are enabled:

myothercontext = Context(prec=60, rounding=ROUND_HALF_DOWN) setcontext(myothercontext) Decimal(1) / Decimal(7) Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857')

ExtendedContext Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999999, Emax=999999999, capitals=1, flags=[], traps=[]) setcontext(ExtendedContext) Decimal(1) / Decimal(7) Decimal('0.142857143') Decimal(42) / Decimal(0) Decimal('Infinity')

setcontext(BasicContext) Decimal(42) / Decimal(0) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<pyshell#143>", line 1, in -toplevel- Decimal(42) / Decimal(0) DivisionByZero: x / 0

Contexts also have signal flags for monitoring exceptional conditions encountered during computations. The flags remain set until explicitly cleared, so it is best to clear the flags before each set of monitored computations by using the clear_flags() method.

setcontext(ExtendedContext) getcontext().clear_flags() Decimal(355) / Decimal(113) Decimal('3.14159292') getcontext() Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999999, Emax=999999999, capitals=1, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[])

The flags entry shows that the rational approximation to Pi was rounded (digits beyond the context precision were thrown away) and that the result is inexact (some of the discarded digits were non-zero).

Individual traps are set using the dictionary in the traps field of a context:

setcontext(ExtendedContext) Decimal(1) / Decimal(0) Decimal('Infinity') getcontext().traps[DivisionByZero] = 1 Decimal(1) / Decimal(0) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<pyshell#112>", line 1, in -toplevel- Decimal(1) / Decimal(0) DivisionByZero: x / 0

Most programs adjust the current context only once, at the beginning of the program. And, in many applications, data is converted to Decimal with a single cast inside a loop. With context set and decimals created, the bulk of the program manipulates the data no differently than with other Python numeric types.

9.4.2. Decimal objects

class decimal.Decimal(value="0", context=None)

Construct a new Decimal object based from value.

value can be an integer, string, tuple, or another Decimalobject. If no value is given, returns Decimal('0'). If value is a string, it should conform to the decimal numeric string syntax after leading and trailing whitespace characters are removed:

sign ::= '+' | '-' digit ::= '0' | '1' | '2' | '3' | '4' | '5' | '6' | '7' | '8' | '9' indicator ::= 'e' | 'E' digits ::= digit [digit]... decimal-part ::= digits '.' [digits] | ['.'] digits exponent-part ::= indicator [sign] digits infinity ::= 'Infinity' | 'Inf' nan ::= 'NaN' [digits] | 'sNaN' [digits] numeric-value ::= decimal-part [exponent-part] | infinity numeric-string ::= [sign] numeric-value | [sign] nan

Other Unicode decimal digits are also permitted where digitappears above. These include decimal digits from various other alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along with the fullwidth digits '\uff10' through '\uff19'.

If value is a tuple, it should have three components, a sign (0 for positive or 1 for negative), a tuple of digits, and an integer exponent. For example, Decimal((0, (1, 4, 1, 4), -3))returns Decimal('1.414').

The context precision does not affect how many digits are stored. That is determined exclusively by the number of digits in value. For example,Decimal('3.00000') records all five zeros even if the context precision is only three.

The purpose of the context argument is determining what to do if value is a malformed string. If the context traps InvalidOperation, an exception is raised; otherwise, the constructor returns a new Decimal with the value ofNaN.

Once constructed, Decimal objects are immutable.

Decimal floating point objects share many properties with the other built-in numeric types such as float and int. All of the usual math operations and special methods apply. Likewise, decimal objects can be copied, pickled, printed, used as dictionary keys, used as set elements, compared, sorted, and coerced to another type (such as float orint).

In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal floating point objects also have a number of specialized methods:

adjusted()

Return the adjusted exponent after shifting out the coefficient’s rightmost digits until only the lead digit remains:Decimal('321e+5').adjusted() returns seven. Used for determining the position of the most significant digit with respect to the decimal point.

as_tuple()

Return a named tuple representation of the number:DecimalTuple(sign, digits, exponent).

canonical()

Return the canonical encoding of the argument. Currently, the encoding of a Decimal instance is always canonical, so this operation returns its argument unchanged.

compare(_other_[, _context_])

Compare the values of two Decimal instances. compare() returns a Decimal instance, and if either operand is a NaN then the result is a NaN:

a or b is a NaN ==> Decimal('NaN') a < b ==> Decimal('-1') a == b ==> Decimal('0') a > b ==> Decimal('1')

compare_signal(_other_[, _context_])

This operation is identical to the compare() method, except that all NaNs signal. That is, if neither operand is a signaling NaN then any quiet NaN operand is treated as though it were a signaling NaN.

compare_total(other)

Compare two operands using their abstract representation rather than their numerical value. Similar to the compare() method, but the result gives a total ordering on Decimal instances. TwoDecimal instances with the same numeric value but different representations compare unequal in this ordering:

Decimal('12.0').compare_total(Decimal('12')) Decimal('-1')

Quiet and signaling NaNs are also included in the total ordering. The result of this function is Decimal('0') if both operands have the same representation, Decimal('-1') if the first operand is lower in the total order than the second, and Decimal('1') if the first operand is higher in the total order than the second operand. See the specification for details of the total order.

compare_total_mag(other)

Compare two operands using their abstract representation rather than their value as in compare_total(), but ignoring the sign of each operand.x.compare_total_mag(y) is equivalent tox.copy_abs().compare_total(y.copy_abs()).

conjugate()

Just returns self, this method is only to comply with the Decimal Specification.

copy_abs()

Return the absolute value of the argument. This operation is unaffected by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is performed.

copy_negate()

Return the negation of the argument. This operation is unaffected by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is performed.

copy_sign(other)

Return a copy of the first operand with the sign set to be the same as the sign of the second operand. For example:

Decimal('2.3').copy_sign(Decimal('-1.5')) Decimal('-2.3')

This operation is unaffected by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is performed.

exp([_context_])

Return the value of the (natural) exponential function e**x at the given number. The result is correctly rounded using theROUND_HALF_EVEN rounding mode.

Decimal(1).exp() Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471') Decimal(321).exp() Decimal('2.561702493119680037517373933E+139')

from_float(f)

Classmethod that converts a float to a decimal number, exactly.

Note Decimal.from_float(0.1) is not the same as Decimal(‘0.1’). Since 0.1 is not exactly representable in binary floating point, the value is stored as the nearest representable value which is0x1.999999999999ap-4. That equivalent value in decimal is0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625.

Decimal.from_float(0.1) Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625') Decimal.from_float(float('nan')) Decimal('NaN') Decimal.from_float(float('inf')) Decimal('Infinity') Decimal.from_float(float('-inf')) Decimal('-Infinity')

New in version 3.1.

fma(other, _third_[, _context_])

Fused multiply-add. Return self*other+third with no rounding of the intermediate product self*other.

Decimal(2).fma(3, 5) Decimal('11')

is_canonical()

Return True if the argument is canonical and Falseotherwise. Currently, a Decimal instance is always canonical, so this operation always returns True.

is_finite()

Return True if the argument is a finite number, andFalse if the argument is an infinity or a NaN.

is_infinite()

Return True if the argument is either positive or negative infinity and False otherwise.

is_nan()

Return True if the argument is a (quiet or signaling) NaN andFalse otherwise.

is_normal()

Return True if the argument is a normal finite number. ReturnFalse if the argument is zero, subnormal, infinite or a NaN.

is_qnan()

Return True if the argument is a quiet NaN, andFalse otherwise.

is_signed()

Return True if the argument has a negative sign andFalse otherwise. Note that zeros and NaNs can both carry signs.

is_snan()

Return True if the argument is a signaling NaN and Falseotherwise.

is_subnormal()

Return True if the argument is subnormal, and Falseotherwise.

is_zero()

Return True if the argument is a (positive or negative) zero andFalse otherwise.

ln([_context_])

Return the natural (base e) logarithm of the operand. The result is correctly rounded using the ROUND_HALF_EVEN rounding mode.

log10([_context_])

Return the base ten logarithm of the operand. The result is correctly rounded using the ROUND_HALF_EVEN rounding mode.

logb([_context_])

For a nonzero number, return the adjusted exponent of its operand as aDecimal instance. If the operand is a zero thenDecimal('-Infinity') is returned and the DivisionByZero flag is raised. If the operand is an infinity then Decimal('Infinity') is returned.

logical_and(_other_[, _context_])

logical_and() is a logical operation which takes two logical operands (see Logical operands). The result is the digit-wise and of the two operands.

logical_invert([_context_])

logical_invert() is a logical operation. The result is the digit-wise inversion of the operand.

logical_or(_other_[, _context_])

logical_or() is a logical operation which takes two logical operands (see Logical operands). The result is the digit-wise or of the two operands.

logical_xor(_other_[, _context_])

logical_xor() is a logical operation which takes two logical operands (see Logical operands). The result is the digit-wise exclusive or of the two operands.

max(_other_[, _context_])

Like max(self, other) except that the context rounding rule is applied before returning and that NaN values are either signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they are signaling or quiet).

max_mag(_other_[, _context_])

Similar to the max() method, but the comparison is done using the absolute values of the operands.

min(_other_[, _context_])

Like min(self, other) except that the context rounding rule is applied before returning and that NaN values are either signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they are signaling or quiet).

min_mag(_other_[, _context_])

Similar to the min() method, but the comparison is done using the absolute values of the operands.

next_minus([_context_])

Return the largest number representable in the given context (or in the current thread’s context if no context is given) that is smaller than the given operand.

next_plus([_context_])

Return the smallest number representable in the given context (or in the current thread’s context if no context is given) that is larger than the given operand.

next_toward(_other_[, _context_])

If the two operands are unequal, return the number closest to the first operand in the direction of the second operand. If both operands are numerically equal, return a copy of the first operand with the sign set to be the same as the sign of the second operand.

normalize([_context_])

Normalize the number by stripping the rightmost trailing zeros and converting any result equal to Decimal('0') toDecimal('0e0'). Used for producing canonical values for members of an equivalence class. For example, Decimal('32.100') andDecimal('0.321000e+2') both normalize to the equivalent valueDecimal('32.1').

number_class([_context_])

Return a string describing the class of the operand. The returned value is one of the following ten strings.

quantize(_exp_[, _rounding_[, _context_[, _watchexp_]]])

Return a value equal to the first operand after rounding and having the exponent of the second operand.

Decimal('1.41421356').quantize(Decimal('1.000')) Decimal('1.414')

Unlike other operations, if the length of the coefficient after the quantize operation would be greater than precision, then anInvalidOperation is signaled. This guarantees that, unless there is an error condition, the quantized exponent is always equal to that of the right-hand operand.

Also unlike other operations, quantize never signals Underflow, even if the result is subnormal and inexact.

If the exponent of the second operand is larger than that of the first then rounding may be necessary. In this case, the rounding mode is determined by the rounding argument if given, else by the givencontext argument; if neither argument is given the rounding mode of the current thread’s context is used.

If watchexp is set (default), then an error is returned whenever the resulting exponent is greater than Emax or less thanEtiny.

radix()

Return Decimal(10), the radix (base) in which the Decimalclass does all its arithmetic. Included for compatibility with the specification.

remainder_near(_other_[, _context_])

Compute the modulo as either a positive or negative value depending on which is closest to zero. For instance, Decimal(10).remainder_near(6)returns Decimal('-2') which is closer to zero than Decimal('4').

If both are equally close, the one chosen will have the same sign as_self_.

rotate(_other_[, _context_])

Return the result of rotating the digits of the first operand by an amount specified by the second operand. The second operand must be an integer in the range -precision through precision. The absolute value of the second operand gives the number of places to rotate. If the second operand is positive then rotation is to the left; otherwise rotation is to the right. The coefficient of the first operand is padded on the left with zeros to length precision if necessary. The sign and exponent of the first operand are unchanged.

same_quantum(_other_[, _context_])

Test whether self and other have the same exponent or whether both areNaN.

scaleb(_other_[, _context_])

Return the first operand with exponent adjusted by the second. Equivalently, return the first operand multiplied by 10**other. The second operand must be an integer.

shift(_other_[, _context_])

Return the result of shifting the digits of the first operand by an amount specified by the second operand. The second operand must be an integer in the range -precision through precision. The absolute value of the second operand gives the number of places to shift. If the second operand is positive then the shift is to the left; otherwise the shift is to the right. Digits shifted into the coefficient are zeros. The sign and exponent of the first operand are unchanged.

sqrt([_context_])

Return the square root of the argument to full precision.

to_eng_string([_context_])

Convert to an engineering-type string.

Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3, so there are up to 3 digits left of the decimal place. For example, convertsDecimal('123E+1') to Decimal('1.23E+3')

to_integral([_rounding_[, _context_]])

Identical to the to_integral_value() method. The to_integralname has been kept for compatibility with older versions.

to_integral_exact([_rounding_[, _context_]])

Round to the nearest integer, signaling Inexact orRounded as appropriate if rounding occurs. The rounding mode is determined by the rounding parameter if given, else by the givencontext. If neither parameter is given then the rounding mode of the current context is used.

to_integral_value([_rounding_[, _context_]])

Round to the nearest integer without signaling Inexact orRounded. If given, applies rounding; otherwise, uses the rounding method in either the supplied context or the current context.

9.4.2.1. Logical operands

The logical_and(), logical_invert(), logical_or(), and logical_xor() methods expect their arguments to be logical operands. A logical operand is a Decimal instance whose exponent and sign are both zero, and whose digits are all either0 or 1.

9.4.3. Context objects

Contexts are environments for arithmetic operations. They govern precision, set rules for rounding, determine which signals are treated as exceptions, and limit the range for exponents.

Each thread has its own current context which is accessed or changed using thegetcontext() and setcontext() functions:

decimal.getcontext()

Return the current context for the active thread.

decimal.setcontext(c)

Set the current context for the active thread to c.

You can also use the with statement and the localcontext()function to temporarily change the active context.

decimal.localcontext([_c_])

Return a context manager that will set the current context for the active thread to a copy of c on entry to the with-statement and restore the previous context when exiting the with-statement. If no context is specified, a copy of the current context is used.

For example, the following code sets the current decimal precision to 42 places, performs a calculation, and then automatically restores the previous context:

from decimal import localcontext

with localcontext() as ctx: ctx.prec = 42 # Perform a high precision calculation s = calculate_something() s = +s # Round the final result back to the default precision

New contexts can also be created using the Context constructor described below. In addition, the module provides three pre-made contexts:

class decimal.BasicContext

This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal Arithmetic Specification. Precision is set to nine. Rounding is set toROUND_HALF_UP. All flags are cleared. All traps are enabled (treated as exceptions) except Inexact, Rounded, andSubnormal.

Because many of the traps are enabled, this context is useful for debugging.

class decimal.ExtendedContext

This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal Arithmetic Specification. Precision is set to nine. Rounding is set toROUND_HALF_EVEN. All flags are cleared. No traps are enabled (so that exceptions are not raised during computations).

Because the traps are disabled, this context is useful for applications that prefer to have result value of NaN or Infinity instead of raising exceptions. This allows an application to complete a run in the presence of conditions that would otherwise halt the program.

class decimal.DefaultContext

This context is used by the Context constructor as a prototype for new contexts. Changing a field (such a precision) has the effect of changing the default for new contexts created by the Context constructor.

This context is most useful in multi-threaded environments. Changing one of the fields before threads are started has the effect of setting system-wide defaults. Changing the fields after threads have started is not recommended as it would require thread synchronization to prevent race conditions.

In single threaded environments, it is preferable to not use this context at all. Instead, simply create contexts explicitly as described below.

The default values are precision=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, and enabled traps for Overflow, InvalidOperation, and DivisionByZero.

In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created with theContext constructor.

class decimal.Context(prec=None, rounding=None, traps=None, flags=None, Emin=None, Emax=None, capitals=1)

Creates a new context. If a field is not specified or is None, the default values are copied from the DefaultContext. If the _flags_field is not specified or is None, all flags are cleared.

The prec field is a positive integer that sets the precision for arithmetic operations in the context.

The rounding option is one of:

The traps and flags fields list any signals to be set. Generally, new contexts should only set traps and leave the flags clear.

The Emin and Emax fields are integers specifying the outer limits allowable for exponents.

The capitals field is either 0 or 1 (the default). If set to1, exponents are printed with a capital E; otherwise, a lowercase e is used: Decimal('6.02e+23').

The Context class defines several general purpose methods as well as a large number of methods for doing arithmetic directly in a given context. In addition, for each of the Decimal methods described above (with the exception of the adjusted() and as_tuple() methods) there is a corresponding Context method. For example, C.exp(x) is equivalent to x.exp(context=C).

clear_flags()

Resets all of the flags to 0.

copy()

Return a duplicate of the context.

copy_decimal(num)

Return a copy of the Decimal instance num.

create_decimal(num)

Creates a new Decimal instance from num but using self as context. Unlike the Decimal constructor, the context precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are applied to the conversion.

This is useful because constants are often given to a greater precision than is needed by the application. Another benefit is that rounding immediately eliminates unintended effects from digits beyond the current precision. In the following example, using unrounded inputs means that adding zero to a sum can change the result:

getcontext().prec = 3 Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal('1.0023') Decimal('4.45') Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal(0) + Decimal('1.0023') Decimal('4.44')

This method implements the to-number operation of the IBM specification. If the argument is a string, no leading or trailing whitespace is permitted.

create_decimal_from_float(f)

Creates a new Decimal instance from a float f but rounding using _self_as the context. Unlike the Decimal.from_float() class method, the context precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are applied to the conversion.

context = Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN) context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi) Decimal('3.1415') context = Context(prec=5, traps=[Inexact]) context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi) Traceback (most recent call last): ... decimal.Inexact: None

New in version 3.1.

Etiny()

Returns a value equal to Emin - prec + 1 which is the minimum exponent value for subnormal results. When underflow occurs, the exponent is set to Etiny.

Etop()

Returns a value equal to Emax - prec + 1.

The usual approach to working with decimals is to create Decimalinstances and then apply arithmetic operations which take place within the current context for the active thread. An alternative approach is to use context methods for calculating within a specific context. The methods are similar to those for the Decimal class and are only briefly recounted here.

abs(x)

Returns the absolute value of x.

add(x, y)

Return the sum of x and y.

canonical(x)

Returns the same Decimal object x.

compare(x, y)

Compares x and y numerically.

compare_signal(x, y)

Compares the values of the two operands numerically.

compare_total(x, y)

Compares two operands using their abstract representation.

compare_total_mag(x, y)

Compares two operands using their abstract representation, ignoring sign.

copy_abs(x)

Returns a copy of x with the sign set to 0.

copy_negate(x)

Returns a copy of x with the sign inverted.

copy_sign(x, y)

Copies the sign from y to x.

divide(x, y)

Return x divided by y.

divide_int(x, y)

Return x divided by y, truncated to an integer.

divmod(x, y)

Divides two numbers and returns the integer part of the result.

exp(x)

Returns e ** x.

fma(x, y, z)

Returns x multiplied by y, plus z.

is_canonical(x)

Returns True if x is canonical; otherwise returns False.

is_finite(x)

Returns True if x is finite; otherwise returns False.

is_infinite(x)

Returns True if x is infinite; otherwise returns False.

is_nan(x)

Returns True if x is a qNaN or sNaN; otherwise returns False.

is_normal(x)

Returns True if x is a normal number; otherwise returns False.

is_qnan(x)

Returns True if x is a quiet NaN; otherwise returns False.

is_signed(x)

Returns True if x is negative; otherwise returns False.

is_snan(x)

Returns True if x is a signaling NaN; otherwise returns False.

is_subnormal(x)

Returns True if x is subnormal; otherwise returns False.

is_zero(x)

Returns True if x is a zero; otherwise returns False.

ln(x)

Returns the natural (base e) logarithm of x.

log10(x)

Returns the base 10 logarithm of x.

logb(x)

Returns the exponent of the magnitude of the operand’s MSD.

logical_and(x, y)

Applies the logical operation and between each operand’s digits.

logical_invert(x)

Invert all the digits in x.

logical_or(x, y)

Applies the logical operation or between each operand’s digits.

logical_xor(x, y)

Applies the logical operation xor between each operand’s digits.

max(x, y)

Compares two values numerically and returns the maximum.

max_mag(x, y)

Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.

min(x, y)

Compares two values numerically and returns the minimum.

min_mag(x, y)

Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.

minus(x)

Minus corresponds to the unary prefix minus operator in Python.

multiply(x, y)

Return the product of x and y.

next_minus(x)

Returns the largest representable number smaller than x.

next_plus(x)

Returns the smallest representable number larger than x.

next_toward(x, y)

Returns the number closest to x, in direction towards y.

normalize(x)

Reduces x to its simplest form.

number_class(x)

Returns an indication of the class of x.

plus(x)

Plus corresponds to the unary prefix plus operator in Python. This operation applies the context precision and rounding, so it is not an identity operation.

power(x, _y_[, _modulo_])

Return x to the power of y, reduced modulo modulo if given.

With two arguments, compute x**y. If x is negative then ymust be integral. The result will be inexact unless y is integral and the result is finite and can be expressed exactly in ‘precision’ digits. The result should always be correctly rounded, using the rounding mode of the current thread’s context.

With three arguments, compute (x**y) % modulo. For the three argument form, the following restrictions on the arguments hold:

The value resulting from Context.power(x, y, modulo) is equal to the value that would be obtained by computing (x**y) % modulo with unbounded precision, but is computed more efficiently. The exponent of the result is zero, regardless of the exponents of x, y and modulo. The result is always exact.

quantize(x, y)

Returns a value equal to x (rounded), having the exponent of y.

radix()

Just returns 10, as this is Decimal, :)

remainder(x, y)

Returns the remainder from integer division.

The sign of the result, if non-zero, is the same as that of the original dividend.

remainder_near(x, y)

Returns x - y * n, where n is the integer nearest the exact value of x / y (if the result is 0 then its sign will be the sign of x).

rotate(x, y)

Returns a rotated copy of x, y times.

same_quantum(x, y)

Returns True if the two operands have the same exponent.

scaleb(x, y)

Returns the first operand after adding the second value its exp.

shift(x, y)

Returns a shifted copy of x, y times.

sqrt(x)

Square root of a non-negative number to context precision.

subtract(x, y)

Return the difference between x and y.

to_eng_string(x)

Converts a number to a string, using scientific notation.

to_integral_exact(x)

Rounds to an integer.

to_sci_string(x)

Converts a number to a string using scientific notation.

9.4.4. Signals

Signals represent conditions that arise during computation. Each corresponds to one context flag and one context trap enabler.

The context flag is set whenever the condition is encountered. After the computation, flags may be checked for informational purposes (for instance, to determine whether a computation was exact). After checking the flags, be sure to clear all flags before starting the next computation.

If the context’s trap enabler is set for the signal, then the condition causes a Python exception to be raised. For example, if the DivisionByZero trap is set, then a DivisionByZero exception is raised upon encountering the condition.

class decimal.Clamped

Altered an exponent to fit representation constraints.

Typically, clamping occurs when an exponent falls outside the context’sEmin and Emax limits. If possible, the exponent is reduced to fit by adding zeros to the coefficient.

class decimal.DecimalException

Base class for other signals and a subclass of ArithmeticError.

class decimal.DivisionByZero

Signals the division of a non-infinite number by zero.

Can occur with division, modulo division, or when raising a number to a negative power. If this signal is not trapped, returns Infinity or-Infinity with the sign determined by the inputs to the calculation.

class decimal.Inexact

Indicates that rounding occurred and the result is not exact.

Signals when non-zero digits were discarded during rounding. The rounded result is returned. The signal flag or trap is used to detect when results are inexact.

class decimal.InvalidOperation

An invalid operation was performed.

Indicates that an operation was requested that does not make sense. If not trapped, returns NaN. Possible causes include:

Infinity - Infinity 0 * Infinity Infinity / Infinity x % 0 Infinity % x x._rescale( non-integer ) sqrt(-x) and x > 0 0 ** 0 x ** (non-integer) x ** Infinity

class decimal.Overflow

Numerical overflow.

Indicates the exponent is larger than Emax after rounding has occurred. If not trapped, the result depends on the rounding mode, either pulling inward to the largest representable finite number or rounding outward to Infinity. In either case, Inexact and Roundedare also signaled.

class decimal.Rounded

Rounding occurred though possibly no information was lost.

Signaled whenever rounding discards digits; even if those digits are zero (such as rounding 5.00 to 5.0). If not trapped, returns the result unchanged. This signal is used to detect loss of significant digits.

class decimal.Subnormal

Exponent was lower than Emin prior to rounding.

Occurs when an operation result is subnormal (the exponent is too small). If not trapped, returns the result unchanged.

class decimal.Underflow

Numerical underflow with result rounded to zero.

Occurs when a subnormal result is pushed to zero by rounding. Inexactand Subnormal are also signaled.

The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals:

exceptions.ArithmeticError(exceptions.Exception) DecimalException Clamped DivisionByZero(DecimalException, exceptions.ZeroDivisionError) Inexact Overflow(Inexact, Rounded) Underflow(Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal) InvalidOperation Rounded Subnormal

9.4.5. Floating Point Notes

9.4.5.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision

The use of decimal floating point eliminates decimal representation error (making it possible to represent 0.1 exactly); however, some operations can still incur round-off error when non-zero digits exceed the fixed precision.

The effects of round-off error can be amplified by the addition or subtraction of nearly offsetting quantities resulting in loss of significance. Knuth provides two instructive examples where rounded floating point arithmetic with insufficient precision causes the breakdown of the associative and distributive properties of addition:

Examples from Seminumerical Algorithms, Section 4.2.2.

from decimal import Decimal, getcontext getcontext().prec = 8

u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111') (u + v) + w Decimal('9.5111111') u + (v + w) Decimal('10')

u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003') (uv) + (uw) Decimal('0.01') u * (v+w) Decimal('0.0060000')

The decimal module makes it possible to restore the identities by expanding the precision sufficiently to avoid loss of significance:

getcontext().prec = 20 u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111') (u + v) + w Decimal('9.51111111') u + (v + w) Decimal('9.51111111')

u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003') (uv) + (uw) Decimal('0.0060000') u * (v+w) Decimal('0.0060000')

9.4.5.2. Special values

The number system for the decimal module provides special values including NaN, sNaN, -Infinity, Infinity, and two zeros, +0 and -0.

Infinities can be constructed directly with: Decimal('Infinity'). Also, they can arise from dividing by zero when the DivisionByZero signal is not trapped. Likewise, when the Overflow signal is not trapped, infinity can result from rounding beyond the limits of the largest representable number.

The infinities are signed (affine) and can be used in arithmetic operations where they get treated as very large, indeterminate numbers. For instance, adding a constant to infinity gives another infinite result.

Some operations are indeterminate and return NaN, or if theInvalidOperation signal is trapped, raise an exception. For example,0/0 returns NaN which means “not a number”. This variety ofNaN is quiet and, once created, will flow through other computations always resulting in another NaN. This behavior can be useful for a series of computations that occasionally have missing inputs — it allows the calculation to proceed while flagging specific results as invalid.

A variant is sNaN which signals rather than remaining quiet after every operation. This is a useful return value when an invalid result needs to interrupt a calculation for special handling.

The behavior of Python’s comparison operators can be a little surprising where aNaN is involved. A test for equality where one of the operands is a quiet or signaling NaN always returns False (even when doingDecimal('NaN')==Decimal('NaN')), while a test for inequality always returnsTrue. An attempt to compare two Decimals using any of the <,<=, > or >= operators will raise the InvalidOperation signal if either operand is a NaN, and return False if this signal is not trapped. Note that the General Decimal Arithmetic specification does not specify the behavior of direct comparisons; these rules for comparisons involving a NaN were taken from the IEEE 854 standard (see Table 3 in section 5.7). To ensure strict standards-compliance, use the compare()and compare-signal() methods instead.

The signed zeros can result from calculations that underflow. They keep the sign that would have resulted if the calculation had been carried out to greater precision. Since their magnitude is zero, both positive and negative zeros are treated as equal and their sign is informational.

In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there are various representations of zero with differing precisions yet equivalent in value. This takes a bit of getting used to. For an eye accustomed to normalized floating point representations, it is not immediately obvious that the following calculation returns a value equal to zero:

1 / Decimal('Infinity') Decimal('0E-1000000026')

9.4.6. Working with threads

The getcontext() function accesses a different Context object for each thread. Having separate thread contexts means that threads may make changes (such as getcontext.prec=10) without interfering with other threads.

Likewise, the setcontext() function automatically assigns its target to the current thread.

If setcontext() has not been called before getcontext(), thengetcontext() will automatically create a new context for use in the current thread.

The new context is copied from a prototype context called DefaultContext. To control the defaults so that each thread will use the same values throughout the application, directly modify the DefaultContext object. This should be done_before_ any threads are started so that there won’t be a race condition between threads calling getcontext(). For example:

Set applicationwide defaults for all threads about to be launched

DefaultContext.prec = 12 DefaultContext.rounding = ROUND_DOWN DefaultContext.traps = ExtendedContext.traps.copy() DefaultContext.traps[InvalidOperation] = 1 setcontext(DefaultContext)

Afterwards, the threads can be started

t1.start() t2.start() t3.start() . . .

9.4.7. Recipes

Here are a few recipes that serve as utility functions and that demonstrate ways to work with the Decimal class:

def moneyfmt(value, places=2, curr='', sep=',', dp='.', pos='', neg='-', trailneg=''): """Convert Decimal to a money formatted string.

places:  required number of places after the decimal point
curr:    optional currency symbol before the sign (may be blank)
sep:     optional grouping separator (comma, period, space, or blank)
dp:      decimal point indicator (comma or period)
         only specify as blank when places is zero
pos:     optional sign for positive numbers: '+', space or blank
neg:     optional sign for negative numbers: '-', '(', space or blank
trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator:  '-', ')', space or blank

>>> d = Decimal('-1234567.8901')
>>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$')
'-$1,234,567.89'
>>> moneyfmt(d, places=0, sep='.', dp='', neg='', trailneg='-')
'1.234.568-'
>>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$', neg='(', trailneg=')')
'($1,234,567.89)'
>>> moneyfmt(Decimal(123456789), sep=' ')
'123 456 789.00'
>>> moneyfmt(Decimal('-0.02'), neg='<', trailneg='>')
'<0.02>'

"""
q = Decimal(10) ** -places      # 2 places --> '0.01'
sign, digits, exp = value.quantize(q).as_tuple()
result = []
digits = list(map(str, digits))
build, next = result.append, digits.pop
if sign:
    build(trailneg)
for i in range(places):
    build(next() if digits else '0')
build(dp)
if not digits:
    build('0')
i = 0
while digits:
    build(next())
    i += 1
    if i == 3 and digits:
        i = 0
        build(sep)
build(curr)
build(neg if sign else pos)
return ''.join(reversed(result))

def pi(): """Compute Pi to the current precision.

>>> print(pi())
3.141592653589793238462643383

"""
getcontext().prec += 2  # extra digits for intermediate steps
three = Decimal(3)      # substitute "three=3.0" for regular floats
lasts, t, s, n, na, d, da = 0, three, 3, 1, 0, 0, 24
while s != lasts:
    lasts = s
    n, na = n+na, na+8
    d, da = d+da, da+32
    t = (t * n) / d
    s += t
getcontext().prec -= 2
return +s               # unary plus applies the new precision

def exp(x): """Return e raised to the power of x. Result type matches input type.

>>> print(exp(Decimal(1)))
2.718281828459045235360287471
>>> print(exp(Decimal(2)))
7.389056098930650227230427461
>>> print(exp(2.0))
7.38905609893
>>> print(exp(2+0j))
(7.38905609893+0j)

"""
getcontext().prec += 2
i, lasts, s, fact, num = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
while s != lasts:
    lasts = s
    i += 1
    fact *= i
    num *= x
    s += num / fact
getcontext().prec -= 2
return +s

def cos(x): """Return the cosine of x as measured in radians.

>>> print(cos(Decimal('0.5')))
0.8775825618903727161162815826
>>> print(cos(0.5))
0.87758256189
>>> print(cos(0.5+0j))
(0.87758256189+0j)

"""
getcontext().prec += 2
i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1
while s != lasts:
    lasts = s
    i += 2
    fact *= i * (i-1)
    num *= x * x
    sign *= -1
    s += num / fact * sign
getcontext().prec -= 2
return +s

def sin(x): """Return the sine of x as measured in radians.

>>> print(sin(Decimal('0.5')))
0.4794255386042030002732879352
>>> print(sin(0.5))
0.479425538604
>>> print(sin(0.5+0j))
(0.479425538604+0j)

"""
getcontext().prec += 2
i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 1, 0, x, 1, x, 1
while s != lasts:
    lasts = s
    i += 2
    fact *= i * (i-1)
    num *= x * x
    sign *= -1
    s += num / fact * sign
getcontext().prec -= 2
return +s

9.4.8. Decimal FAQ

Q. It is cumbersome to type decimal.Decimal('1234.5'). Is there a way to minimize typing when using the interactive interpreter?

A. Some users abbreviate the constructor to just a single letter:

D = decimal.Decimal D('1.23') + D('3.45') Decimal('4.68')

Q. In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs have many places and need to be rounded. Others are not supposed to have excess digits and need to be validated. What methods should be used?

A. The quantize() method rounds to a fixed number of decimal places. If the Inexact trap is set, it is also useful for validation:

TWOPLACES = Decimal(10) ** -2 # same as Decimal('0.01')

Round to two places

Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES) Decimal('3.21')

Validate that a number does not exceed two places

Decimal('3.21').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact])) Decimal('3.21')

Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact])) Traceback (most recent call last): ... Inexact: None

Q. Once I have valid two place inputs, how do I maintain that invariant throughout an application?

A. Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an integer will automatically preserve fixed point. Others operations, like division and non-integer multiplication, will change the number of decimal places and need to be followed-up with a quantize() step:

a = Decimal('102.72') # Initial fixed-point values b = Decimal('3.17') a + b # Addition preserves fixed-point Decimal('105.89') a - b Decimal('99.55') a * 42 # So does integer multiplication Decimal('4314.24') (a * b).quantize(TWOPLACES) # Must quantize non-integer multiplication Decimal('325.62') (b / a).quantize(TWOPLACES) # And quantize division Decimal('0.03')

In developing fixed-point applications, it is convenient to define functions to handle the quantize() step:

def mul(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES): ... return (x * y).quantize(fp) def div(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES): ... return (x / y).quantize(fp)

mul(a, b) # Automatically preserve fixed-point Decimal('325.62') div(b, a) Decimal('0.03')

Q. There are many ways to express the same value. The numbers 200,200.000, 2E2, and 02E+4 all have the same value at various precisions. Is there a way to transform them to a single recognizable canonical value?

A. The normalize() method maps all equivalent values to a single representative:

values = map(Decimal, '200 200.000 2E2 .02E+4'.split()) [v.normalize() for v in values] [Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2')]

Q. Some decimal values always print with exponential notation. Is there a way to get a non-exponential representation?

A. For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the number of significant places in the coefficient. For example, expressing5.0E+3 as 5000 keeps the value constant but cannot show the original’s two-place significance.

If an application does not care about tracking significance, it is easy to remove the exponent and trailing zeroes, losing significance, but keeping the value unchanged:

def remove_exponent(d): ... return d.quantize(Decimal(1)) if d == d.to_integral() else d.normalize()

remove_exponent(Decimal('5E+3')) Decimal('5000')

Q. Is there a way to convert a regular float to a Decimal?

A. Yes, all binary floating point numbers can be exactly expressed as a Decimal. An exact conversion may take more precision than intuition would suggest, so we trap Inexact to signal a need for more precision:

def float_to_decimal(f): "Convert a floating point number to a Decimal with no loss of information" n, d = f.as_integer_ratio() with localcontext() as ctx: ctx.traps[Inexact] = True while True: try: return Decimal(n) / Decimal(d) except Inexact: ctx.prec += 1

float_to_decimal(math.pi) Decimal('3.141592653589793115997963468544185161590576171875')

Q. Why isn’t the float_to_decimal() routine included in the module?

A. There is some question about whether it is advisable to mix binary and decimal floating point. Also, its use requires some care to avoid the representation issues associated with binary floating point:

float_to_decimal(1.1) Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')

Q. Within a complex calculation, how can I make sure that I haven’t gotten a spurious result because of insufficient precision or rounding anomalies.

A. The decimal module makes it easy to test results. A best practice is to re-run calculations using greater precision and with various rounding modes. Widely differing results indicate insufficient precision, rounding mode issues, ill-conditioned inputs, or a numerically unstable algorithm.

Q. I noticed that context precision is applied to the results of operations but not to the inputs. Is there anything to watch out for when mixing values of different precisions?

A. Yes. The principle is that all values are considered to be exact and so is the arithmetic on those values. Only the results are rounded. The advantage for inputs is that “what you type is what you get”. A disadvantage is that the results can look odd if you forget that the inputs haven’t been rounded:

getcontext().prec = 3 Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('2.104') Decimal('5.21') Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('0.000') + Decimal('2.104') Decimal('5.20')

The solution is either to increase precision or to force rounding of inputs using the unary plus operation:

getcontext().prec = 3 +Decimal('1.23456789') # unary plus triggers rounding Decimal('1.23')

Alternatively, inputs can be rounded upon creation using theContext.create_decimal() method:

Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN).create_decimal('1.2345678') Decimal('1.2345')