[Python-Dev] PEP 558: Defined semantics for locals() (original) (raw)

Guido van Rossum guido at python.org
Sat May 25 10:36:45 EDT 2019

This looks great.

I only have two nits with the text.

First, why is the snapshot called a "dynamic snapshot"? What exactly is dynamic about it?

Second, you use the word "mapping" a lot. Would you mind changing that to "mapping object" in most places? Especially in the phrase "each call to locals() returns the same mapping". To me, without the word "object" added, this could be interpreted as "a dict with the same key/value pairs" (since "mapping" is also an abstract mathematical concept describing anything that maps keys to values).

Other than that, go for it! (Assuming Nathaniel agrees, of course.)

--Guido

On Tue, May 21, 2019 at 7:54 AM Nick Coghlan <ncoghlan at gmail.com> wrote:

Hi folks,

After a couple of years hiatus, I finally got back to working on the reference implementation for PEP 558, my proposal to resolve some weird interactions between closures and trace functions in CPython by formally defining the expected semantics of the locals() builtin at function scope, and then ensuring that CPython adheres to those clarified semantics. The full text of the PEP is included below, and the rendered version is available at https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0558/ The gist of the PEP is that: 1. The behaviour when no trace functions are installed and no frame introspection APIs are invoked is fine, so nothing should change in that regard (except that we elevate that behaviour from "the way CPython happens to work" to "the way the language and library reference says that Python implementations are supposed to work", and make sure CPython continues to behave that way even when a trace hook is installed) 2. If you get hold of a frame object in CPython (or another implementation that emulates the CPython frame API), whether via a trace hook or via a frame introspection API, then writing to the returned mapping will update the actual function locals and/or closure reference immediately, rather than relying on the FastToLocals/LocalsToFast APIs 3. The LocalsToFast C API changes to always produce RuntimeError (since there's no way for us to make it actually work correctly and consistently in the presence of closures, and the trace hook implementation won't need it any more given the write-through proxy behaviour on frame objects' "flocals" attribute) The reference implementation still isn't quite done yet, but it's far enough along that I'm happy with the semantics and C API updates proposed in the current version of the PEP. Cheers, Nick. P.S. I'm away this weekend, so I expect the reference implementation to be done late next week, and I'd be submitting the PEP to Nathaniel for formal pronouncement at that point. However, I'm posting this thread now so that there's more time for discussion prior to the 3.8b1 deadline. ============== PEP: 558 Title: Defined semantics for locals() Author: Nick Coghlan <ncoghlan at gmail.com> BDFL-Delegate: Nathaniel J. Smith Status: Draft Type: Standards Track Content-Type: text/x-rst Created: 2017-09-08 Python-Version: 3.8 Post-History: 2017-09-08, 2019-05-22

Abstract ======== The semantics of the locals() builtin have historically been underspecified and hence implementation dependent. This PEP proposes formally standardising on the behaviour of the CPython 3.6 reference implementation for most execution scopes, with some adjustments to the behaviour at function scope to make it more predictable and independent of the presence or absence of tracing functions. Rationale ========= While the precise semantics of the locals() builtin are nominally undefined, in practice, many Python programs depend on it behaving exactly as it behaves in CPython (at least when no tracing functions are installed). Other implementations such as PyPy are currently replicating that behaviour, up to and including replication of local variable mutation bugs that can arise when a trace hook is installed [1]. While this PEP considers CPython's current behaviour when no trace hooks are installed to be acceptable (and largely desirable), it considers the current behaviour when trace hooks are installed to be problematic, as it causes bugs like [1] without even reliably enabling the desired functionality of allowing debuggers like pdb to mutate local variables [3]. Proposal ======== The expected semantics of the locals() builtin change based on the current execution scope. For this purpose, the defined scopes of execution are: * module scope: top-level module code, as well as any other code executed using exec() or eval() with a single namespace * class scope: code in the body of a class statement, as well as any other code executed using exec() or eval() with separate local and global namespaces * function scope: code in the body of a def or async def statement We also allow interpreters to define two "modes" of execution, with only the first mode being considered part of the language specification itself: * regular operation: the way the interpreter behaves by default * tracing mode: the way the interpreter behaves when a trace hook has been registered in one or more threads via an implementation dependent mechanism like sys.settrace ([4]) in CPython's sys module or PyEvalSetTrace ([5]) in CPython's C API For regular operation, this PEP proposes elevating the current behaviour of the CPython reference implementation to become part of the language specification. For tracing mode, this PEP proposes changes to CPython's behaviour at function scope that bring the locals() builtin semantics closer to those used in regular operation, while also making the related frame API semantics clearer and easier for interactive debuggers to rely on. The proposed tracing mode changes also affect the semantics of frame object references obtained through other means, such as via a traceback, or via the sys.getframe() API. New locals() documentation ------------------------------ The heart of this proposal is to revise the documentation for the locals() builtin to read as follows: Return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table, with variable names as the keys, and their currently bound references as the values. This will always be the same dictionary for a given runtime execution frame. At module scope, as well as when using exec() or eval() with a single namespace, this function returns the same namespace as globals(). At class scope, it returns the namespace that will be passed to the metaclass constructor. When using exec() or eval() with separate local and global namespaces, it returns the local namespace passed in to the function call. At function scope (including for generators and coroutines), it returns a dynamic snapshot of the function's local variables and any nonlocal cell references. In this case, changes made via the snapshot are not written back to the corresponding local variables or nonlocal cell references, and any such changes to the snapshot will be overwritten if the snapshot is subsequently refreshed (e.g. by another call to locals()). CPython implementation detail: the dynamic snapshot for the current frame will be implicitly refreshed before each call to the trace function when a trace function is active. For reference, the current documentation of this builtin reads as follows: Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table. Free variables are returned by locals() when it is called in function blocks, but not in class blocks. Note: The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter. (In other words: the status quo is that the semantics and behaviour of locals() are currently formally implementation defined, whereas the proposed state after this PEP is that the only implementation defined behaviour will be that encountered at function scope when a tracing function is defined, with the behaviour in all other cases being defined by the language and library references) Module scope ------------ At module scope, as well as when using exec() or eval() with a single namespace, locals() must return the same object as globals(), which must be the actual execution namespace (available as inspect.currentframe().flocals in implementations that provide access to frame objects). Variable assignments during subsequent code execution in the same scope must dynamically change the contents of the returned mapping, and changes to the returned mapping must change the values bound to local variable names in the execution environment. The semantics at module scope are required to be the same in both tracing mode (if provided by the implementation) and in regular operation. To capture this expectation as part of the language specification, the following paragraph will be added to the documentation for locals(): At module scope, as well as when using exec() or eval() with a single namespace, this function returns the same namespace as globals(). This part of the proposal does not require any changes to the reference implementation - it is standardisation of the current behaviour. Class scope ----------- At class scope, as well as when using exec() or eval() with separate global and local namespaces, locals() must return the specified local namespace (which may be supplied by the metaclass _prepare_ method in the case of classes). As for module scope, this must be a direct reference to the actual execution namespace (available as inspect.currentframe().flocals in implementations that provide access to frame objects). Variable assignments during subsequent code execution in the same scope must change the contents of the returned mapping, and changes to the returned mapping must change the values bound to local variable names in the execution environment. The mapping returned by locals() will not be used as the actual class namespace underlying the defined class (the class creation process will copy the contents to a fresh dictionary that is only accessible by going through the class machinery). For nested classes defined inside a function, any nonlocal cells referenced from the class scope are not included in the locals() mapping. The semantics at class scope are required to be the same in both tracing mode (if provided by the implementation) and in regular operation. To capture this expectation as part of the language specification, the following two paragraphs will be added to the documentation for locals(): When using exec() or eval() with separate local and global namespaces, [this function] returns the given local namespace. At class scope, it returns the namespace that will be passed to the metaclass constructor. This part of the proposal does not require any changes to the reference implementation - it is standardisation of the current behaviour. Function scope -------------- At function scope, interpreter implementations are granted significant freedom to optimise local variable access, and hence are NOT required to permit arbitrary modification of local and nonlocal variable bindings through the mapping returned from locals(). Historically, this leniency has been described in the language specification with the words "The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter." This PEP proposes to change that text to instead say: At function scope (including for generators and coroutines), [this function] returns a dynamic snapshot of the function's local variables and any nonlocal cell references. In this case, changes made via the snapshot are not written back to the corresponding local variables or nonlocal cell references, and any such changes to the snapshot will be overwritten if the snapshot is subsequently refreshed (e.g. by another call to locals()). CPython implementation detail: the dynamic snapshot for the currently executing frame will be implicitly refreshed before each call to the trace function when a trace function is active. This part of the proposal does require changes to the CPython reference implementation, as while it accurately describes the behaviour in regular operation, the "write back" strategy currently used to support namespace changes from trace functions doesn't comply with it (and also causes the quirky behavioural problems mentioned in the Rationale). CPython Implementation Changes ============================== The current cause of CPython's tracing mode quirks (both the side effects from simply installing a tracing function and the fact that writing values back to function locals only works for the specific function being traced) is the way that locals mutation support for trace hooks is currently implemented: the PyFrameLocalsToFast function. When a trace function is installed, CPython currently does the following for function frames (those where the code object uses "fast locals" semantics): 1. Calls PyFrameFastToLocals to update the dynamic snapshot 2. Calls the trace hook (with tracing of the hook itself disabled) 3. Calls PyFrameLocalsToFast to capture any changes made to the dynamic snapshot This approach is problematic for a few different reasons: * Even if the trace function doesn't mutate the snapshot, the final step resets any cell references back to the state they were in before the trace function was called (this is the root cause of the bug report in [1]) * If the trace function does mutate the snapshot, but then does something that causes the snapshot to be refreshed, those changes are lost (this is one aspect of the bug report in [3]) * If the trace function attempts to mutate the local variables of a frame other than the one being traced (e.g. frame.fback.flocals), those changes will almost certainly be lost (this is another aspect of the bug report in [3]) * If a locals() reference is passed to another function, and that function mutates the snapshot namespace, then those changes may be written back to the execution frame if a trace hook is installed The proposed resolution to this problem is to take advantage of the fact that whereas functions typically access their own namespace using the language defined locals() builtin, trace functions necessarily use the implementation dependent frame.flocals interface, as a frame reference is what gets passed to hook implementations. Instead of being a direct reference to the dynamic snapshot returned by locals(), frame.flocals will be updated to instead return a dedicated proxy type (implemented as a private subclass of the existing types.MappingProxyType) that has two internal attributes not exposed as part of either the Python or public C API: * mapping: the dynamic snapshot that is returned by the locals() builtin * frame: the underlying frame that the snapshot is for _setitem_ and _delitem_ operations on the proxy will affect not only the dynamic snapshot, but also the corresponding fast local or cell reference on the underlying frame. The locals() builtin will be made aware of this proxy type, and continue to return a reference to the dynamic snapshot rather than to the write-through proxy. At the C API layer, PyEvalGetLocals() will implement the same semantics as the Python level locals() builtin, and a new PyFrameGetPyLocals(frame) accessor API will be provided to allow the function level proxy bypass logic to be encapsulated entirely inside the frame implementation. The C level equivalent of accessing pyframe.flocals in Python will be a new PyFrameGetLocalsAttr(frame) API. Like the Python level descriptor, the new API will implicitly refresh the dynamic snapshot at function scope before returning a reference to the write-through proxy. The PyFrameLocalsToFast() function will be changed to always emit RuntimeError, explaining that it is no longer a supported operation, and affected code should be updated to rely on the write-through tracing mode proxy instead. Design Discussion ================= Ensuring locals() returns a shared snapshot at function scope ----------------------------------------------------------------- The locals() builtin is a required part of the language, and in the reference implementation it has historically returned a mutable mapping with the following characteristics: * each call to locals() returns the same mapping * for namespaces where locals() returns a reference to something other than the actual local execution namespace, each call to locals() updates the mapping with the current state of the local variables and any referenced nonlocal cells * changes to the returned mapping usually aren't written back to the local variable bindings or the nonlocal cell references, but write backs can be triggered by doing one of the following: * installing a Python level trace hook (write backs then happen whenever the trace hook is called) * running a function level wildcard import (requires bytecode injection in Py3) * running an exec statement in the function's scope (Py2 only, since exec became an ordinary builtin in Python 3) The proposal in this PEP aims to retain the first two properties (to maintain backwards compatibility with as much code as possible) while ensuring that simply installing a trace hook can't enable rebinding of function locals via the locals() builtin (whereas enabling rebinding via frame.flocals inside the tracehook implementation is fully intended). Keeping locals() as a dynamic snapshot at function scope ------------------------------------------------------------ It would theoretically be possible to change the semantics of the locals() builtin to return the write-through proxy at function scope, rather than continuing to return a dynamic snapshot. This PEP doesn't (and won't) propose this as it's a backwards incompatible change in practice, even though code that relies on the current behaviour is technically operating in an undefined area of the language specification. Consider the following code snippet:: def example(): x = 1 locals()["x"] = 2 print(x) Even with a trace hook installed, that function will consistently print 1 on the current reference interpreter implementation:: >>> example() 1 >>> import sys >>> def basichook(*args): ... return basichook ... >>> sys.settrace(basichook) >>> example() 1 Similarly, locals() can be passed to the exec() and eval() builtins at function scope without risking unexpected rebinding of local variables. Provoking the reference interpreter into incorrectly mutating the local variable state requires a more complex setup where a nested function closes over a variable being rebound in the outer function, and due to the use of either threads, generators, or coroutines, it's possible for a trace function to start running for the nested function before the rebinding operation in the outer function, but finish running after the rebinding operation has taken place (in which case the rebinding will be reverted, which is the bug reported in [1]). In addition to preserving the de facto semantics which have been in place since PEP 227 introduced nested scopes in Python 2.1, the other benefit of restricting the write-through proxy support to the implementation-defined frame object API is that it means that only interpreter implementations which emulate the full frame API need to offer the write-through capability at all, and that JIT-compiled implementations only need to enable it when a frame introspection API is invoked, or a trace hook is installed, not whenever locals() is accessed at function scope. What happens with the default args for eval() and exec()? ----------------------------------------------------------------- These are formally defined as inheriting globals() and locals() from the calling scope by default. There isn't any need for the PEP to change these defaults, so it doesn't. Changing the frame API semantics in regular operation ----------------------------------------------------- Earlier versions of this PEP proposed having the semantics of the frame flocals attribute depend on whether or not a tracing hook was currently installed - only providing the write-through proxy behaviour when a tracing hook was active, and otherwise behaving the same as the locals() builtin. That was adopted as the original design proposal for a couple of key reasons, one pragmatic and one more philosophical: * Object allocations and method wrappers aren't free, and tracing functions aren't the only operations that access frame locals from outside the function. Restricting the changes to tracing mode meant that the additional memory and execution time overhead of these changes would as close to zero in regular operation as we can possibly make them. * "Don't change what isn't broken": the current tracing mode problems are caused by a requirement that's specific to tracing mode (support for external rebinding of function local variable references), so it made sense to also restrict any related fixes to tracing mode However, actually attempting to implement and document that dynamic approach highlighted the fact that it makes for a really subtle runtime state dependent behaviour distinction in how frame.flocals works, and creates several new edge cases around how flocals behaves as trace functions are added and removed. Accordingly, the design was switched to the current one, where frame.flocals is always a write-through proxy, and locals() is always a dynamic snapshot, which is both simpler to implement and easier to explain. Regardless of how the CPython reference implementation chooses to handle this, optimising compilers and interpreters also remain free to impose additional restrictions on debuggers, by making local variable mutation through frame objects an opt-in behaviour that may disable some optimisations (just as the emulation of CPython's frame API is already an opt-in flag in some Python implementations). Historical semantics at function scope -------------------------------------- The current semantics of mutating locals() and frame.flocals in CPython are rather quirky due to historical implementation details: * actual execution uses the fast locals array for local variable bindings and cell references for nonlocal variables * there's a PyFrameFastToLocals operation that populates the frame's flocals attribute based on the current state of the fast locals array and any referenced cells. This exists for three reasons: * allowing trace functions to read the state of local variables * allowing traceback processors to read the state of local variables * allowing locals() to read the state of local variables * a direct reference to frame.flocals is returned from locals(), so if you hand out multiple concurrent references, then all those references will be to the exact same dictionary * the two common calls to the reverse operation, PyFrameLocalsToFast, were removed in the migration to Python 3: exec is no longer a statement (and hence can no longer affect function local namespaces), and the compiler now disallows the use of from module import * operations at function scope * however, two obscure calling paths remain: PyFrameLocalsToFast is called as part of returning from a trace function (which allows debuggers to make changes to the local variable state), and you can also still inject the IMPORTSTAR opcode when creating a function directly from a code object rather than via the compiler This proposal deliberately doesn't formalise these semantics as is, since they only make sense in terms of the historical evolution of the language and the reference implementation, rather than being deliberately designed. Implementation ============== The reference implementation update is in development as a draft pull request on GitHub ([6]). Acknowledgements ================ Thanks to Nathaniel J. Smith for proposing the write-through proxy idea in [1] and pointing out some critical design flaws in earlier iterations of the PEP that attempted to avoid introducing such a proxy. References ========== .. [1] Broken local variable assignment given threads + trace hook + closure (https://bugs.python.org/issue30744) .. [2] Clarify the required behaviour of locals() (https://bugs.python.org/issue17960) .. [3] Updating function local variables from pdb is unreliable (https://bugs.python.org/issue9633) .. [4] CPython's Python API for installing trace hooks (https://docs.python.org/dev/library/sys.html#sys.settrace) .. [5] CPython's C API for installing trace hooks (https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/init.html#c.PyEvalSetTrace) .. [6] PEP 558 reference implementation (https://github.com/python/cpython/pull/3640/files) Copyright ========= This document has been placed in the public domain. -- Nick Coghlan | ncoghlan at gmail.com | Brisbane, Australia

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