History of Russia (1855–1892) (original) (raw)
بدأ ألكسندر الثاني عهده كقيصرٍ لروسيا في عام 1855، وترأس فترةً من الإصلاح السياسي والاجتماعي، لا سيما تحرير الأقنان (إصلاح التحرر) في عام 1861 ورفع الرقابة. وتبِع خليفته ألكسندر الثالث (1881-1894) سياسة القمع وقيّد الإنفاق العام، لكنه استمرّ في تطبيق إصلاحات الأراضي والعمل. كانت هذه فترة نموٍ سكاني وتصنيعٍ كبير، على الرغم من بقاء روسيا بلدًا ريفيًا إلى حدٍّ كبير.
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| dbo:abstract | بدأ ألكسندر الثاني عهده كقيصرٍ لروسيا في عام 1855، وترأس فترةً من الإصلاح السياسي والاجتماعي، لا سيما تحرير الأقنان (إصلاح التحرر) في عام 1861 ورفع الرقابة. وتبِع خليفته ألكسندر الثالث (1881-1894) سياسة القمع وقيّد الإنفاق العام، لكنه استمرّ في تطبيق إصلاحات الأراضي والعمل. كانت هذه فترة نموٍ سكاني وتصنيعٍ كبير، على الرغم من بقاء روسيا بلدًا ريفيًا إلى حدٍّ كبير. شملت الحركات السياسية في ذلك الوقت الشعبويين (حركة النارودنكس) والأناركيين (اللاسلطويين) والماركسيين. اغتالت منظمةٌ ثورية تدعى إرادة الشعب (نارودنايا فوليا) ألكسندر الثاني. جسّد السلافوفيليين تيارًا آخر من الفكر، فقد عارضوا التحديث والتغريب. واصلت روسيا توسيع إمبراطوريتها، واحتلّت القوقاز وطشقند وسمرقند. في ما يتعلّق بالشؤون الخارجية، بدأت الفترة مع انتهاء حرب القرم. دخلت السياسة الروسية في صراعٍ مع القوى الأوروبية الأخرى، ولا سيما الإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية، حيث سعت إلى توسيع نفوذها على حساب الأجزاء الأوروبية من الإمبراطورية العثمانية المنحسرة واستعادة الوصول البحري إلى البحر الأسود. بلغ ذلك الصراع أوجه بحربٍ ناجحة مع الإمبراطورية العثمانية في عام 1877-1878، تلتها معاهدة سان ستيفانو ومؤتمر برلين في عام 1878 التي نشأت من خلالها بلغاريا المستقلّة واكتسبت الأراضي العثمانية السابقة في جنوب القوقاز. انضمّت روسيا إلى ألمانيا والإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية في عصبة الأباطرة الثلاثة، لكن الاحتكاك استمرّ مع الشريكين بشأن بلغاريا، وانتهى التحالف مع ألمانيا في عام 1890. (ar) In 1845, Alexander II began his reign as Tsar of Russia and presided over a period of political and social reform, notably the emancipation of serfs in 1861 and the lifting of censorship. His successor Alexander III (1881–1894) pursued a policy of repression and restricted public expenditure, but continued land and labour reforms. This was a period of population growth and significant industrialization, though Russia remained a largely rural country. Political movements of the time included the Populists (Narodniki), anarchists and Marxists. A revolutionary organization called People's Will (Narodnaya Volya) assassinated Alexander II. Another current of thought was embodied in the Slavophiles, who opposed modernization and Westernization. Russia continued to expand its empire, occupying the Caucasus, Tashkent and Samarkand. In foreign affairs, the period began with the conclusion of the Crimean War. Russian policy brought it into conflict with other European powers, in particular Austria-Hungary, as it sought to extend influence over the European portions of the receding Ottoman Empire and regain naval access to the Black Sea. This culminated in a successful war with the Ottoman Empire in 1877–1878, followed by the Treaty of San Stefano and Congress of Berlin in 1878 by which an independent Bulgaria came into being and by acquisition of former Ottoman territories in the South Caucasus. Russia joined Germany and Austria-Hungary in the League of the Three Emperors, but friction continued with both partners over Bulgaria. The alliance with Germany came to an end in 1890. (en) La fine del XIX secolo e l'inizio del XX secolo furono tempi di crisi e di riforme per la Russia. Il mondo cambiava con grande velocità, l'industria e la tecnologia dei paesi occidentali incrementavano il loro sviluppo e nuove e dinamiche grandi potenze si affacciavano sulla scena mondiale. Otto von Bismarck riunificò la Germania nel 1871, gli Stati Uniti, superata la crisi della guerra civile, iniziarono un vertiginoso sviluppo industriale ed economico e un Giappone in via di modernizzazione emerse dalla Restaurazione Meiji del 1868. Benché la Russia realizzasse una grande espansione territoriale in Asia dove confinava con l'Impero ottomano, la Persia, l'India Britannica e l'Impero Cinese, essa non fu in grado di produrre una quantità di capitale per finanziare un rapido sviluppo industriale o per competere commercialmente con gli altri stati. Il dilemma di fondo che travagliò la Russia fu, da una parte, il timore che un'accelerazione dello sviluppo interno potesse sfociare in una rivoluzione mentre uno sviluppo troppo lento rischiava di lasciarla economicamente dipendente dalle altre nazioni più avanzate. In effetti i fermenti politici, specialmente tra l'intellighenzia, accompagnarono la trasformazione delle strutture sociali ed economiche della Russia generando anche un notevole sviluppo in letteratura, nella musica, nelle arti e nelle scienze. (it) |
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| rdfs:comment | بدأ ألكسندر الثاني عهده كقيصرٍ لروسيا في عام 1855، وترأس فترةً من الإصلاح السياسي والاجتماعي، لا سيما تحرير الأقنان (إصلاح التحرر) في عام 1861 ورفع الرقابة. وتبِع خليفته ألكسندر الثالث (1881-1894) سياسة القمع وقيّد الإنفاق العام، لكنه استمرّ في تطبيق إصلاحات الأراضي والعمل. كانت هذه فترة نموٍ سكاني وتصنيعٍ كبير، على الرغم من بقاء روسيا بلدًا ريفيًا إلى حدٍّ كبير. (ar) In 1845, Alexander II began his reign as Tsar of Russia and presided over a period of political and social reform, notably the emancipation of serfs in 1861 and the lifting of censorship. His successor Alexander III (1881–1894) pursued a policy of repression and restricted public expenditure, but continued land and labour reforms. This was a period of population growth and significant industrialization, though Russia remained a largely rural country. (en) La fine del XIX secolo e l'inizio del XX secolo furono tempi di crisi e di riforme per la Russia. Il mondo cambiava con grande velocità, l'industria e la tecnologia dei paesi occidentali incrementavano il loro sviluppo e nuove e dinamiche grandi potenze si affacciavano sulla scena mondiale. Otto von Bismarck riunificò la Germania nel 1871, gli Stati Uniti, superata la crisi della guerra civile, iniziarono un vertiginoso sviluppo industriale ed economico e un Giappone in via di modernizzazione emerse dalla Restaurazione Meiji del 1868. (it) |
| rdfs:label | تاريخ روسيا (1855–1892) (ar) Sviluppo economico russo nel XIX secolo (it) History of Russia (1855–1892) (en) |
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