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��: Anatomy of the ANS. Organization of the nervous system.The nervous system is divided into two anatomical divisions: the central nervous system (CNS), which is composed of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which includes neurons located outside the brain and spinal cord�that is, any nerves that enter or leave the CNS. The peripheral nervous system is subdivided into the efferent and afferent divisions. The efferent neurons carry signals away from the brain and spinal cord to the peripheral tissues, and the afferent neurons bring information from the periphery to the CNS. Afferent neurons provide sensory input to modulate the function of the efferent division through reflex arcs or neural pathways that mediate a reflex action. Functional divisions within the nervous system.The efferent portion of the peripheral nervous system is further divided into two major functional subdivisions: the somatic and the ANS (Figure 3.1). The somatic efferent neurons are involved in the voluntary control of functions such as contraction of the skeletal muscles essential for locomotion.

The ANS, conversely, regulates the everyday requirements of vital bodily functions without the conscious participation of the mind. Because of the involuntary nature of the ANS as well as its functions, it is also known as the visceral, vegetative, or involuntary nervous system. It is composed of efferent neurons that innervate smooth muscle of the viscera, cardiac muscle, vasculature, and the exocrine glands, thereby controlling digestion, cardiac output, blood flow, and glandular secretions.
6_14, p. 39

��: Anatomy of the ANS.1. Efferent neurons: The ANS carries nerve impulses from the CNS to the effector organs by way of two types of efferent neurons: the preganglionic neurons and the postganglionic neurons (Figure 3.2). The cell body of the first nerve cell, the preganglionic neuron, is located within the CNS. The preganglionic neurons emerge from the brainstem or spinal cord and make a synaptic connection in ganglia (an aggregation of nerve cell bodies located in the peripheral nervous system). The ganglia function as relay stations between the preganglionic neuron and the second nerve cell, the postganglionic neuron. The cell body of the postganglionic neuron originates in the ganglion. It is generally nonmyelinated and terminates on effector organs, such as smooth muscles of the viscera, cardiac muscle, and the exocrine glands.2. Afferent neurons: The afferent neurons (fibers) of the ANS are important in the reflex regulation of this system (for example, by sensing pressure in the carotid sinus and aortic arch) and in signaling the CNS to influence the efferent branch of the system to respond.3. Sympathetic neurons: The efferent ANS is divided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems, as well as the enteric nervous system (Figure 3.1). Anatomically, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic neurons originate in the CNS and emerge from two different spinal cord regions. The preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic system come from the thoracic and lumbar regions (T1 to L2) of the spinal cord, and they synapse in two cord-like chains of ganglia that run close to and in parallel on each side of the spinal cord. The preganglionic neurons are short in comparison to the postganglionic ones. Axons of the postganglionic neuron extend from these ganglia to the tissues that they innervate and regulate (see Chapter 6). In most cases, the preganglionic nerve endings of the sympathetic nervous system are highly branched, enabling one preganglionic neuron to interact with many postganglionic neurons. This arrangement enables this division to activate numerous effector organs at the same time.

[Note: The adrenal medulla, like the sympathetic ganglia, receives preganglionic fibers from the sympathetic system. The adrenal medulla, in response to stimulation by the ganglionic neurotransmitter acetylcholine, secretes epinephrine (adrenaline), and lesser amounts of norepinephrine, directly into the blood.]

4. Parasympathetic neurons: The parasympathetic preganglionic fibers arise from cranial nerves III (oculomotor), VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal), and X (vagus), as well as from the sacral region (S2 to S4) of the spinal cord and synapse in ganglia near or on the effector organs. [Note: The vagus nerve accounts for 90% of preganglionic parasympathetic fibers in the body. Postganglionic neurons from this nerve innervate most of the organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavity.] Thus, in contrast to the sympathetic system, the preganglionic fibers are long, and the postganglionic ones are short, with the ganglia close to or within the organ innervated. In most instances, there is a one-to-one connection between the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons, enabling discrete response of this system.
5. Enteric neurons: The enteric nervous system is the third division of the ANS. It is a collection of nerve fibers that innervate the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, pancreas, and gallbladder, and it constitutes the �brain of the gut.� This system functions independently of the CNS and controls the motility, exocrine and endocrine secretions, and microcirculation of the GI tract. It is modulated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
6_14, p. 40.

��. �� (��) �� . ��: Encyclopaedia Brittanica, 2007

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Afifi A.K., Bergman R.A., Eds. Functional Neuroanatomy = �� . 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Medical, 2005, 550 p. �� . �� = Translate into Russian.
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Alcamo I.E. Anatomy Coloring Workbook = ��. �� . Princeton Review, 1997, 304 p. �� . �� = Translate into Russian.
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Bienenstock J., Blennerhassett M., Goetzl E. Autonomic Neuroimmunology = �� . Informa HealthCare, 2003, 402 p. �� . �� = Translate into Russian.
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Bolis C. L.; Licinio J.; Govoni, S., Eds. Handbook of the Autonomic Nervous System in Health and Disease, 2003, 677 p.
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Bolis C. L.; Licinio J.; Govoni, S., Eds. Handbook of the Autonomic Nervous System in Health and Disease, 2003, 677 p.
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Bornstein J.S. Autonomic Nervous System: Gastrointestinal Control = �� : �� -�� , in: Squire L.R., Ed. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. Elsevier, 2009, 10798 p., p. 929-939.
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Brading A. The Autonomic Nervous System and Its Effectors = �� . 1999, 370 p.
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Brodal P. The Central Nervous System: Structure and Function = �� : �� , 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, 2003, 532 p. �� . �� = Translate into Russian.
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Conn P.M., Ed. Neuroscience in Medicine = �� . 3rd ed., Humana Press, 2008, 816 p. �� .
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Blum A.S., Rutkove S.B., Eds. The Clinical Neurophysiology Primer = �� . Humana Press, 2007, 537 p.
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Criswell E. Introduction to Surface Electromyography = �� . ��. 2nd ed., Jones and Bartlett Publisherss, 2010, 500 p. �� .
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Daube J.K., Rubin D.I., Eds. Clinical Neurophysiology = �� . 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, 2009, 928 p. �� .
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Daube J.K., Rubin D.I., Eds. Clinical Neurophysiology = �� . 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 2002, 680 p. �� .
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Drake R.L., Vogl W., , Mitchell A.W.M., Eds. Gray's Anatomie Fu"r Studenten = �� . Urban & Fischer Bei Elsevier, 2007, 1128 p. �� . �� = Translate into Russian.
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Gartner L,P., Hiatt J.L., Strum J.M., Eds. Cell Biology and Histology, 6th ed., Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2010, 386 p.
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Gartner L.P, Hiatt J.M. Color Textbook of Histology = ��. �� , 3th ed., The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2006, 592 p., 446 Ill.
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Gray H., (1821�1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students = �. ��: �� . Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
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Gray H., (1821�1865), Standring S., Ed. Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice = �. ��: �� . 39th ed., Churchill Livingstone, 2008, 1600 p.
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Gray H., (1821�1865), Bannister L.H., Berry M.M., and Williams P.L., Eds. Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Medicine & Surgery = �. ��: �� . 38th ed., Churchill Livingstone, 1995, 600 p.
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Greenstein B., Greenstein A. Color Atlas of Neuroscience: Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology. 2001, 448 p.
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Hendelman W., Ed. Atlas of Functional Neuroanatomy = �� . 2nd ed., CRC, 2005, 296 p. �� . �� = Translate into Russian.
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Jünig W. Integrative Action of the Autonomic Nervous System: Neurobiology of Homeostasis = �� . �� . Cambridge University Press, 2006, 632 p. �� . �� 5. �� . �� = Translate into Russian.
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Kaneko M., Ed. Sympathetic Nervous System = �� . Nova Science Publishers, 2007, 338 p. �� .
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Kenney M.J., Ganta C.K. Autonomic Nervous System and Immune System Interactions = �� . Compr. Physiol. 2014, 4, 1177-1200.
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Kuchel G.A., Hof P.R. Autonomic Nervous System in Old Age = �� . S Karger Pub, 2004, 137 p.
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Loewy A.D., Spyer K.M., Eds. Central Regulation of Autonomic Functions = �� . Oxford University Press, 1998, 408 p. �� .
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McCorry L.K. Physiology of the Autonomic Nervous System = �� . Am. J. Pharm. Educ., 2007, 15, 71, 4, 78. ��.
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Robertson D.W., Ed. Primer on the Autonomic Nervous System = �� . Academic Press, 2004, 488 p. �� . ��, ��, ��. �� = Translate into Russian.
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Silverthorn D.U., Ph.D., Ober W.C., M.D., Garrison C.W., R.N., Silverthorn A.C., M.D. Human Physiology.
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Squire L.R., Ed. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience = �� . Elsevier, 2009, 10798 p.
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Thews G., Vaupel P. Vegetative Physiologie = �� . 5 Aufl., Springer, 2005, 619 p. �� . �� = Translate into Russian.
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Waxman S.G., Ed. Clinical Neuroanatomy = �� . 25th ed., McGraw-Hill Medical, 2007, 400 p. �� . �� = Translate into Russian.
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