Nissim Amzallag | Ben Gurion University of the Negev (original) (raw)

Books by Nissim Amzallag

Hameara publishing, Israel, 2023

Two thousand years of interpretation and two hundred years of research have clarified every word ... more Two thousand years of interpretation and two hundred years of research have clarified every word and every statement in the Bible, fueled by the desire to elucidate the birth of Israel and the singularity of its beliefs. Have we reached a satisfying level of understanding today? This book answers in the negative. It shows that the original identity of the God of Israel became gradually obfuscated throughout the second temple period, and that it is so far from the current concepts that ignoring it prevents us to elucidate the mystery of the emergence of the nation of Israel.
The book is based on a renewed analysis of the biblical texts and new archaeological findings. It reveals the original identity of YHWH as a god close to the people of Cain (the Kenites), a group of copper metalworkers originating from Sinai, Arabah and the Negev. It also reveals that the ancient Israelite religion emerged from the transformation of the esoteric Yahwistic traditions of these Kenite metalworkers into the official religion of an entire people. Through this perspective, the birth of Israel becomes the expression of a movement of liberation unique in the history of mankind, which extended in all kinds of ways its message in the whole world, until this very day.

Cambridge University Press, 2023

In this book, Nissim Amzallag offers new perspectives on the birth of ancient Israel by combining... more In this book, Nissim Amzallag offers new perspectives on the birth of ancient Israel by combining recent archaeological discoveries with a new approach to ancient Yahwism. He investigates the renewal of the copper industry in the Early Iron Age Levant and its influence on the rise of new nations, and also explores the recently identified metallurgical context of ancient Yahwism in the Bible. By merging these two branches of evidence, Amzallag proposes that the YHWH was in the Early Iron Age approached in the Southern Levant as a powerful deity who sponsored the emancipation movement that freed Israel and its neighbors from the Amorite/ Egyptian hegemony. Amzallag identifies the early Israelite religion as an attempt to transform the esoteric traditions of Levantine metalworkers into the public worship of YHWH. These unusual origins provide insight into many of the unique aspects of Israelite theology that ultimately spurred the evolution towards monotheism. His volume also casts new light on the mysterious smelting-god, the figure around which many Bronze Age religions revolved.

Peeters - Leuven, 2021

Interpreted as praising the divine powers on the storm, Psalm 29 is currently a cornerstone of th... more Interpreted as praising the divine powers on the storm, Psalm 29 is currently a cornerstone of the thesis of YHWH’s storm-god identity and his closeness to the Canaanite Baal. Here, this view is challenged by considerations about YHWH’s powers on the storm and a reanalysis of Psalm 29, including a comparative examination of the three possible expressions of the voice of YHWH (storm, volcanism, and metallurgy); a whole-psalm analysis of its structure, content and literary developments; and the meaning of five songs (Psalms 46, 96-98, 114) conditioned by it. This analysis identifies Psalm 29 as a pre-Israelite, Qenite song promoting a metallurgical relationship with YHWH, and praising him as the ‘Lord of mabbul’ (= revitalization). Its content unveils the Qenite Yahwism and its enduring influence in Israel. The conditioned psalms express how this song contributed to the evolution of the Israelite religion, especially the transformation of YHWH into the ‘Lord of Justice’ in Psalms 96-98 and the Isaiah theology.

Cahiers de la revue biblique 85, 2015

The post-exilic biblical writings speak in two contrasting voices. The first focuses on the Babyl... more The post-exilic biblical writings speak in two contrasting voices. The first focuses on the Babylonian repatriates and ignores the Israelite population that remained in the land during the exile. It upholds an exclusive relationship between YHWH and the community organized around Jerusalem and its temple. The second voice takes a contrasting and much more universalistic approach to the relationship with YHWH and even promotes its expansion among foreign nations through the diffusion of musical worship.
The first voice clearly echoes the theology evoked in Jeremiah (especially in the metaphor of the good and bad figs in Jeremiah 24) and extensively developed in Ezekiel. The second voice, however, appears to be distant from the classical Israelite theology. It is shown in this study that this second voice echoes a pre-Israelite cult of YHWH that originated in the land of Seir and denotes the existence of a Seirite religious elite in post-exilic Zion.
Part 1 of the study investigates the reason for the presence of a small group of Edomite/Seirite musicians and poets, self-defined as "sons of Zerah" or "Ezrahites," in early post-exilic Jerusalem, and clarifies the nature of their yahwistic religious background. With the help of the books of Nehemiah, Chronicles, and Psalms, Part 2 analyzes the Levitization of these foreign singers and the opposition this process stimulated among the community of the Sons of Exile. Part 3 examines the transformation of these Ezrahite singers into a new religious elite, a process promoted mainly by Nehemiah and his followers, and explores the theological changes this new situation stimulated.
This study uncovers an overlooked reality that had a profound influence on the evolution of post-Exilic yawhism and on the composition and content of many biblical writings.

origine des idées reçues en Biologie moderne, CNRS Éditions, Paris, 2002. L'Homme végétal. Pour u... more origine des idées reçues en Biologie moderne, CNRS Éditions, Paris, 2002. L'Homme végétal. Pour une autonomie du vivant, Albin Michel, Paris, 2003. La haine maintenant ? Sionisme et palestinisme : les sept pièges du conflit, Éditions de La Différence, Paris, 2006 (en collaboration avec D.A. Belhassen). La révolution du cuivre. Métallurges cananéens et origine des civilisations, Hameara, Livna (Israël), 2008 (en hébreu). Les Éditions Charles Léopold Mayer, fondées en 1995, ont pour objectif d'aider à l'échange et à la diffusion des idées et des expériences de la Fondation Charles Léopold Mayer pour le progrès de l'Homme (FPH) et de ses partenaires. Les ECLM sont membres de la Coredem, une confédération de sites ressources pour une démocratie mondiale qui rassemble des partenaires autour d'une charte, d'un moteur de recherche et d'un wiki. www.coredem.info Le Groupe international d'études transdisciplinaires (GIET) a pour objectif de susciter un changement culturel global, une « métamorphose », selon l'excellente expression d'Edgar Morin. L'essentiel du travail du GIET consiste à rechercher dans le non-dit (cf. « transdisciplinarité ») matière à des développements qui n'ont pas vocation à rester dans l'histoire, si tant est qu'il y ait une histoire future possible. La science formant la trame de la culture occidentale, constitue l'objet principal de notre réflexion. www.giet-info.org L'auteur Ancien élève de l'École Normale Supérieure (St. Cloud) et docteur de l'Université hébraïque de Jérusalem, Nissim Amzallag a poursuivi en parallèle une recherche expérimentale (physiologie végétale), une réflexion sur les fondements de l'investigation scientifique et sur le développement des connaissances dans l'Antiquité, trois thèmes qui ont conduit à la publication d'articles scientifiques et d'ouvrages destinés à un large public. La confrontation de ces diverses approches fait de La réforme du vrai une critique inédite de la modernité. PRÉFACE 13 2. Tocqueville, De la démocratie en Amérique, Garnier Flammarion, 1981. Prologue Sortir de la modernité ? « Sans doute ne suis-je pas très intelligent : en tout cas les idées ne sont pas mon fort. J'ai toujours été déçu par elles. Les opinions les mieux fondées, les systèmes philosophiques les plus harmonieux (les mieux constitués) m'ont toujours paru absolument fragiles, causé un certain écoeurement, vague à l'âme, un sentiment de pénible inconsistance. » Francis Ponge, Méthodes, p. 9. Peut-on sortir de la modernité ? En apparence, non. La modernité n'est pas une position que l'on adopte par goût. C'est un mode d'être qui s'impose par son évidence, et que l'homme se doit d'accepter au nom de la raison. Quant aux réticents, ils sont regardés comme des enfants rebelles se refusant de voir le monde tel que la science le révèle patiemment, et surtout d'en tirer les conséquences pratiques. Mais aussi ferme puisse-t-elle être, cette assurance tient sur un seul et unique fondement : l'idée d'une intime adéquation entre les affirmations de la science et la réalité des faits. Dans le cas échéant, s'effondre d'un coup son autorité suprême. La modernité devient alors une doctrine à laquelle on est en droit d'adhérer totalement, partiellement, ou encore pas du tout. La question de la 19 PROLOGUE -SORTIR DE LA MODERNITÉ ? 21 LA RÉFORME DU VRAI 24

Papers - Bible and ancient Near East by Nissim Amzallag

Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 2021

The causes of the disappearance of Late Chalcolithic society (Ghassulian) in the early fourth mil... more The causes of the disappearance of Late Chalcolithic society (Ghassulian) in the early fourth millennium BC remain obscure. This study identifies the collapse as the consequence of a change in the approach to metallurgy from cosmological fundament (Late Chalcolithic) to a practical craft (EB1). This endogenous transition accounts for the cultural recession characterizing the transitional period (EB1A) and the discontinuity in ritual practices. The new practical approach in metallurgy is firstly observed in the southern margin of the Ghassulian culture, which produced copper for distribution in the Nile valley rather than the southern Levant. Nevertheless, the Ghassulian cultural markers visible in the newly emerging areas of copper working (southern coastal plain, Nile valley) denote the survival of the old cosmological traditions among metalworkers of the EB1 culture. Their religious expression unveils the extension of the Ghassulian beliefs attached to metallurgy and their metamorphosis into the esoteric fundaments of the Bronze Age religions.

Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 2017

Psalm 92 is generally approached as a wisdom, royal, or hymnic song composed for the Sabbath litu... more Psalm 92 is generally approached as a wisdom, royal, or hymnic song composed for the Sabbath liturgy. The present study, however, reveals that behind this ostensible meaning, this psalm alludes to the integration of foreign Yahwistic singers among the clergy at the Jerusalem temple and the opposition that it provoked among some of their Israelite peers. Though this reality remains visible in the linear reading of the psalm, its full expression emerges only after the psalm is set in a cross-responsa fashion, a mode of complex antiphonal performance that mixes two voices singing the same text in the inverse order of its verses.

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 2021

As the first of the songs of Ascents, Psalm 120 might be seen as key to understanding the whole c... more As the first of the songs of Ascents, Psalm 120 might be seen as key to understanding the whole corpus, but its content remains poorly understood. This study suggests that its author was a smithpoet committed to the Edomite/Qenite traditional worship of YHWH, here complaining about participating, through the fabrication of iron weapons, in the demise of Edom (553 BCE). On this reading, the poem becomes a lament on the irremediable demise of traditional (metallurgical) Yahwism after the rise of iron metallurgy and its transformation of war. Introducing the Ascents, this song might express the search for an alternative form of Yahwism emancipated from the original metallurgical dimension. Expressed in Israel, this alternative Yahwism becomes praised in the other songs of Ascents. This interpretation corroborates the rise of a group of Edomite poets (Ezrahites) in Jerusalem in the early Persian period and its integration within the temple staff.

Old Testament Essays, 2020

In the Biblical account of the golden calf (Exodus 32), abnormal importance is devoted to the met... more In the Biblical account of the golden calf (Exodus 32), abnormal importance is devoted to the metal of the statuette, its origin, and even its destruction. The present analysis identifies this latter process as an act of cementation, a technique used in antiquity to separate gold from its alloyed metals, mainly copper. In parallel, the tabernacle symbolism reveals that pure gold is a marker of YHWH's theophany whereas goldcopper alloy is associated with the man-god relationship. Consequently, instead of condemning idolatry, the cementation treatment of the golden calf symbolizes the abortion of the project of divine residence in the tabernacle, the re-establishment of YHWH's distance from humankind, and the restoration of an intermediate divine figure between YHWH and the Israelites. It is concluded that, in Exodus 32, the transgression inherent in the making of the golden calf results from the combination of two antagonistic goals: the indirect worship of YHWH via the golden calf and closeness to the supreme deity via the tabernacle project.

Entangled religions, 2021

The re-emergence of the copper industry in the Arabah valley between the twelfth and ninth centur... more The re-emergence of the copper industry in the Arabah valley between the twelfth and ninth centuries BCE stimulated wealth and economic development across the whole Southern Levant. Combining this reality with the metallurgical background of ancient Yahwism provides a material basis for the spread, from the early Iron Age, of the worship of YHWH in ancient Israel and neighboring nations, especially Edom. These findings strengthen the Qenite hypothesis of the origin of the Israelite religion. They also suggest that an official cult of YHWH, replacing a traditional esoteric dimension, is the main novelty of the Israelite religion. The claim of YHWH's intervention in history, apparently absent from traditional Yahwism, is the other theological novelty advanced by the Israelites. This article suggests that both innovations are rooted in a desert-shaped form of Yahwism especially adapted to the way of life and the environment of Northwestern Arabia, the land of Biblical Midian.

Ancient Near Eastern Studies, 2019

The use of the term mabbûl to designate a flood / inundation is specific to biblical Hebrew, but ... more The use of the term mabbûl to designate a flood / inundation is specific to biblical Hebrew, but outside the book of Genesis, inundation events are not evoked as mabbûl. That the designation of Noah's flood as mabbûl in Genesis is unconventional is suggested by the many glosses that accompany it, and by the difficulty of interpreting mabbûl as flood in Ps :. It is proposed here that the word mabbûl derives from a metallurgical meaning of the root ybl associated with the melting of metal, and that it originally refers to the melting of old metallic artefacts for the purpose of recycling and renewing the metal. Consequently, the mabbûl appellation of Noah's Flood is interpreted here as an innovation introduced by the author of Genesis, whose intent was to remove this story from its Mesopotamian background and to integrate it, via the re-melting imagery, into the metallurgical context traditionally characterising ancient Yahwism.

Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 2019

In the Pentateuch, the appellation ʾōhel mȏʿēd denotes both the Israelite tabernacle and the tent... more In the Pentateuch, the appellation ʾōhel mȏʿēd denotes both the Israelite tabernacle and the tent of meeting evoked in Exod 18, 7-12; Exod 33,7-11; Num 27,1-23 and Deut 31,14-15. The latter venue, exclusively associated with the figure of Moses, is characterized by the absence of priestly function, cultic service, sacrifices, and ritual. The involvement of Jethro in its inauguration (Exodus 18), together with its metallurgical affinities and its similarities with the tent-sanctuary found in Timna (southern Arabah), suggest that the tent is borrowed from Qenite Yahwistic traditions. The importance of this shrine is revealed by its being the site of dialogue with the deity and the consequent elaboration of Israelite legislation (the Law of Moses). It is also reflected by the transfer to the Israelite Tabernacle (miškān) of some of its essential characteristics. It is concluded that, instead of reflecting an Is-raelite tradition parallel to that of the Tabernacle, Moses' tent of meeting expresses in the Pentateuch the transitory phase of emergence of the Israelite religion from primeval Qenite Yahwism.

Hebrew Studies, 2018

An examination of the word ‫ה‬ ‫נֶ‬ ‫קְ‬ ‫מִ‬ in four biblical occurrences (Gen 34:23; Josh 22:8;... more An examination of the word ‫ה‬ ‫נֶ‬ ‫קְ‬ ‫מִ‬ in four biblical occurrences (Gen 34:23; Josh 22:8; Ezek 38:12-13; and 2 Chr 14:14) reveals that it may be interpreted as "cattle/livestock" in these cases only after emenda-tions and disregard of the structure, rhetorical pattern, and literary and historical contexts of the verses. Alternately, it is shown that inconsistencies and/or problems of translation disappear, in all four instances, after ‫ה‬ ‫נֶ‬ ‫קְ‬ ‫מִ‬ is identified as denoting raw metal. This metallurgical meaning of ‫ה‬ ‫נֶ‬ ‫קְ‬ ‫,מִ‬ explicitly evoked in Josh 22:8 and Ezek 38:12-13, is also supported by other metallurgical expressions derived from qny and its closely related roots, qyn and qnˀ. The disregard of such a meaning, evidenced from the Septuagint to modern scholarship, confirms that a part of the metallurgical terminology in the Bible was forgotten in the time interval between the re-daction of the book of Chronicles and the Greek translation of the Bible.

Harvard Theological Review, 2019

 Abstract Examination of Exodus 25-31 and 35-40 shows that preciousness and aesthetic considerat... more  Abstract Examination of Exodus 25-31 and 35-40 shows that preciousness and aesthetic considerations were not the main precipitants of the use of gold in the tabernacle. Rather, the distribution of this metal in both the tabernacle and the priestly garments reveals a theological criterion for its use and distribution. It is suggested here that this criterion is rooted in pre-Israelite Yahwism, and that it emanates from the parallel of gold, approached as the metal produced by YHWH, and copper, its human-made counterpart. Accordingly, YHWH's residence within the tabernacle is associated with pure gold, whereas the function of communion with the Israelites in this facility is attached to a gold-copper alloy (ordinary gold). It is shown that the theological significance of gold related in Exodus contrasts with the considerations of prestige and magnificence associated in Kings with the use of gold in the Jerusalem temple. These observations reveal a divergence between the Priestly and the Deuteronomistic sources in regard to the status of gold and, by extension, of the pre-Israelite background of Yahwism. It is concluded that the description of the tabernacle in Exodus challenges the abandonment of the theological dimension of gold and metallurgy in the Jerusalem temple in the late monarchic period or, alternately, serves as fundament for a theodicy that justifies the fall of the city. * The anonymous reviewers are warmly acknowledged here for their precious advice, recommendations, and criticisms, which substantially contributed to the maturation of this study and enhanced the scientific quality of this paper.

The emergence of metallurgy was an important factor in the development of Ancient Near Eastern so... more The emergence of metallurgy was an important factor in the development of Ancient Near Eastern societies. Metal became the raw material for the production of tools, utilitarian implements, jewels, items of prestige, objects of art, and ritual artifacts. Its imperishability opened up new possibilities with respect to the concentration of wealth and power [...] Despite these considerations, metallurgy is rarely approached as an important factor in the development of the Bronze Age religions, in comparison with the sun, atmospheric elements, fertility, crop production, water and the subterranean universe...

Old Testament Essays, 2018

The ambiguity in Isa 54:16a concerning the identity of the subject (YHWH or the smith) of the two... more The ambiguity in Isa 54:16a concerning the identity of the subject (YHWH or the smith) of the two verbs relating a metallurgical action (to blow and to cast) is identified here as a rhetorical device intending to conceal the essential relation of YHWH with metallurgy. Integrated in the whole Isa 54 chapter, this device becomes a plea for the definitive replacement of Edom with Israel as YHWH’S people, exactly as in Isa 34-35 and Isa 61-63.

Hebrew Studies , 2019

Isaiah 33:14 is interpreted here as expressing the crux of a bitter controversy between a salvati... more Isaiah 33:14 is interpreted here as expressing the crux of a bitter controversy between a salvation theology, defended by Isaiah, and a con-templative approach of YHWH that denies all targeted divine intervention, defended by Isaiah's opponents. In this conflict, Isa 33:14 quotes opponents who mock Isaiah and his followers for their theological position by asking sarcastically who is capable of kindling the divine fire on earth, with which it may be transformed into a weapon for use against a specific target. This interpretation yields a new meaning of the verbal root ‫גור‬ twice expressed in this verse. The fiery context of meaning of ‫,גור‬ and of its derivatives in many Semitic languages, support both the interpretation of ‫גור‬ as "to kindle a fire" in Biblical Hebrew and the antiquity of this semantic field in West Semitic languages.

Antiguo Oriente, 2018

Visual codes including three types of signs (logogram, phonograms and determinatives) are the ear... more Visual codes including three types of signs (logogram, phonograms and determinatives) are the earliest stage in the development of writing. Until recently, the oldest known visual code identified so far, the early precursor of the hieroglyphs, has been discovered in pre-Dynastic Egyptian context (Tomb U-j, near Abydos, 3320 BC). An examination of artifacts from the Nahal Mishmar copper hoard (end fifth millennium BCE) suggests the development of a visual code that employs these three types of signs in Southern Levant, many centuries before its earliest expression in Egypt and in Mesopotamia. This visual code is tridimensional, and its encoded messages focus on metallurgical processes and their cultural significance. The implications for our understanding of the Ghassulian culture and the development of writing in the Ancient Near East are discussed.

Revue Biblique, 2018

Beyond denoting nose and anger, the divine ᾿ap also signifies burning wind, consuming fire, and p... more Beyond denoting nose and anger, the divine ᾿ap also signifies burning wind, consuming fire, and pouring of hot liquid. This article suggests that this fiery imagery is not introduced simply to illustrate the concept of God's fury. Rather, ᾿ap refers to a specific mode of divine action closely associated with metallurgy and volcanism. These observations, together with the combination of wind and fire, further suggest that ᾿ap also designates the blowing apparatus of a furnace. This interpretation is supported by both the structural and functional homology between the blowing apparatus of ancient furnaces and the respiratory system, and by the identification of metallurgy as one of YHWH's most essential attributes , the source of the preternatural properties of the divine fire. It is concluded that the wrath expressed through the divine ᾿ap is probably not an anthropopathic extension of human anger that references the nasal perturbations inherent to fury. Rather, divine anger appears to be a metaphorical extension of the divine metal-lurgical reality. It frequently expresses, in a language accessible to the Israelite audience, the imminence of the explosive and destructive consequences of enhanced activity of the celestial blowing apparatus. RÉSUMÉ Au delà d'une désignation du nez et de la colère, le terme ᾿ap, dans le contexte divin, évoque également une action au moyen d'un vent incendiaire, un feu dévorant et la versée d'un liquide brûlant. Le présent article suggère que cette réalité ardente n'est pas simplement introduite pour figurer la colère divine, mais qu'elle exprime un mode volcanique et métallurgique d'action de YHWH. Ces observations, ainsi

Journal of Biblical Literature, 2018

The books of Ezra and Nehemiah differ in their definition of the repatriates from Babylon, the bo... more The books of Ezra and Nehemiah differ in their definition of the repatriates from Babylon, the boundaries of the in-group, the appellations of God, the celebration of the Sukkot festival, the status of the priests, the prestige bestowed on Ezra, and the attitude toward the foreign Yahwistic singers (Ezrahites) who took part in musical worship at the Jerusalem temple. The intersection of all these differences reveals the contrasting ideological backgrounds of these two books. In Ezra, the returnees from Babylon and their religious elite (priests, Levites, and prophets) constitute the nucleus preserved by YHWH from destruction from which Israel as a whole is expected to regenerate. Both this view of the repatriates as the sole legitimate remnant and its ideological consequences are challenged in Nehemiah. These differences are perceptible not only when the first-person narrative sections in Ezra and Nehemiah are compared (the so-called Ezra and Nehemiah memoirs) but also in the third-person narration segments. These positions are consistent throughout Ezra and Nehemiah, leading to the conclusion that the two books were composed and/or edited by two distinct authors who expressed contrasting views on the theological importance of the Babylonian exile.

Hameara publishing, Israel, 2023

Cambridge University Press, 2023

Peeters - Leuven, 2021

Cahiers de la revue biblique 85, 2015

Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 2021

Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 2017

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 2021

Old Testament Essays, 2020

Entangled religions, 2021

Ancient Near Eastern Studies, 2019

Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 2019

Hebrew Studies, 2018

Harvard Theological Review, 2019

Old Testament Essays, 2018

Hebrew Studies , 2019

Antiguo Oriente, 2018

Revue Biblique, 2018

Journal of Biblical Literature, 2018

Ancient Near Eastern Studies, 2018

The nature and function of the Cain genealogy (Gen. 4:17-24) are here reconsidered. Instead of a ... more The nature and function of the Cain genealogy (Gen. 4:17-24) are here reconsidered. Instead of a general overview of the fundaments of civilisation, it is shown, through a re-examination of Jabal's specialty, that the Cain genealogy focuses on the society of Canaanite metalworkers and musicians/poets, the Qenites (= Kenites), and their status as YHWH's earliest worshippers. This analysis also reveals that the genealogy of Cain preserved the memory of the most important events in the development of copper metallurgy in the southern Levant-the transition from an archaic to an advanced mode of smelting, in the early fourth millennium BCE, and the subsequent specialisation that differentiated producers of copper from producers of metallic implements. These observations suggest that the Cain genealogy constitutes, together with the story of Cain and Abel, a coherent myth of Qenite origin. Consequently, the exposition of the Cain genealogy before and independently of the lineage from Adam to Israel becomes an unexpected feature. It is concluded that this situation stems from the need to demonstrate the Qenites' identity as the former people of YHWH and to separate them as far as possible from the emergence of YHWH's new people, Israel.*

Mining for Ancient Copper - edited by Erez Ben Yosef, 2018

During the early Iron Age, a Canaanite tent-sanctuary replaced the Hathor temple of the Timna min... more During the early Iron Age, a Canaanite tent-sanctuary replaced the Hathor temple of the Timna mining area. The metallurgical character of this shrine was maintained. However, the identity of the deity substituting Hathor in this tent-sanctuary remains obscure. It is suggested here that this deity was no other than YHWH. This opinion is supported by (i) the affinities with metallurgy of the origin, theophany, celestial universe and mode of action of YHWH; (ii) Biblical indications towards a specific worship of YHWH among the Canaanite metalworkers; (iii) indirect evidence regarding a non-Israelite worship of YHWH among the populations involved in copper production in the Arabah valley; (iv) similarities observed between the tent-sanctuary of Timna and the early Israelite cult of YHWH narrated in the Bible. It is concluded here, that the metamorphosis of the Hathor temple into a Canaanite tent-sanctuary of YHWH aims towards a 'cultural renaissance' during the early Iron Age accompanied by the sudden renewal of copper production in the Arabah valley, as well as the emergence of Ancient Israel together with other new political entities.

Journal of the American Oriental Society, 2017

In the mining context of Job 28, ʿāpār (vv. 2,6) does not designate dust or its derivatives (eart... more In the mining context of Job 28, ʿāpār (vv. 2,6) does not designate dust or its derivatives (earth, dirt, ashes), as so frequently assumed, but rather designates ore. Furthermore, in contrast with the figurative meanings of ʿāpār as dust (abasement, humiliation worthlessness), it is associated in Job 28 with preciousness, rarity and wisdom. The use of ʿāpār as ore, in the Bible, is apparently not restricted to Job 28. This is revealed by how the ore dimension of meaning clarifies the content of eight further verses (Gen 3:14; Isa 34:7; 41:2; 65:25; Ezek 26:12; Job 22:24; 30:6; Prov 8:26) which remain obscure as long as ʿāpār is approached as dust and its derivatives. Furthermore, it is shown that the meaning of ʿāpār as ore also clarifies the obscure etymology of ʿōperet and gāperît. These data reveal that a dimension of meaning of ʿāpār as ore coexists in biblical Hebrew with the traditional association of ʿāpār with dust. The ignorance of such a reality, already attested in the Septuagint, overlooked the meaning of these verses and the theology inspiring them.

Semitica, 2017

The roots qny, qn’, and qyn are generally considered of distinct origin. However, a common dimens... more The roots qny, qn’, and qyn are generally considered of distinct origin. However, a common dimension of meaning, metallurgy, is found in all of them. Further examinations indicate that all the other meanings that these roots express (such as trade, creation, begetting, singing, jealousy, and reed) may also derive from the metallurgical reality and its cultural dimension in the southern Levant. The differentiation of the qayin family reveals the conspicuous importance of metallurgy, in its earliest stages of development, for the proto-Canaanite language spoken in this area in the fifth millennium BCE and its modal differentiation.

Philosophy and technology, 2020

A brief survey of the development of some techniques from antiquity to recent times reveals that ... more A brief survey of the development of some techniques from antiquity to recent times reveals that their initial phase was stimulated not by perspectives of exploiting their outcome, as is usually expected for technology, but by the valorization of the process itself. This initial phase, defined here as technopoiesis, is conceptually and practically distinct from what subsequently becomes technology in respect of inventiveness, standardization, technical skill, level of ornamentation, practical use, integration into systems of exchange, and ritualized versus secular uses. It is shown that technopoiesis may profoundly modify the cultural environment by shaping the universe of beliefs, rituals, and values and that this influence may persist even after the transition to technology. It makes the distinction between technology and technopoiesis essential for evaluating the cultural influence of techniques, from the Paleolithic era to modern times.

La musique, contre-chant du discours-La musique est une des activites \es plus enigmatiques de I'... more La musique, contre-chant du discours-La musique est une des activites \es plus enigmatiques de I'hom me. C'est une realite qui provoque tres rapidement des modifications fonctionnelles profondes non seulement dans !e cerveau, mais encore-dans la physiologie generale de l'organisme. Et comme toutes les cul tures connaissent une forme ou une autre de musique, !es biologistes se sont empresses d'en faire une particu!arite propre a l'homme, au meme titre que l'echo!ocation par u!tra-sons est une specialite des : baleines et des chauve-souris. Mais alors se pose Ull autre probleme au nom de quel « avantage selectif» le cerveau humain est-il cense

Dans la pratique de la science, nous opérons tous des choix. Certains d'entre eux sont guidés par... more Dans la pratique de la science, nous opérons tous des choix. Certains d'entre eux sont guidés par notre hypothèse de départ, et d'autres par les contingences expérimentales. Il est indispensable de conserver ce point à l'esprit pour que la confrontation entre théorie et observations reste féconde. Sinon, l'hypothèse se transforme en dogme, et les résultats qui la contredisent deviennent des artéfacts. Mais il existe un choix qui n'a pour ainsi dire jamais été remis en cause en biologie: celui considérant la variabilité comme l'expres-sion d'un bruit. C'est pourquoi les données mesurées d'une variable sont spontanément condensées en une valeur moyenne représentative de la population, et d'un écart type exprimant la quantité de bruit inhérente à la mesme expérimentale. Cette transformation fait de la valeur moyenne la réponse vraie du système expérimental face au stimulus appliqué, et de la variabilité calculée autour de la moyenne un phénomène parasite. Ce traitement des données est tout à fait légitime tant qu' i1représente une approche parmi d'autres. Mais ils' est progressivement transformé en un « dogme épistémologique» de la biologie expérimentale. Ce dernier conditionne aujourd'hui non seulement l'expéri-mentation et le traitement des données, mais encore le type d'hypothèses émises et même le type de conclusions que l'on tire de l'expérience. L'objectifde ce présent exposé est d'inviter à une remise en question de ce dogme, pour des raisons épistémologiques autant qu'expérimentales, et de montrer en quoi son usage inconditionnel conduit à une vision erronée de la réalité biologique. La physique classique, une science du général La physique classique est généralement considérée comme référence en matière de scientificité. Et les raisons ne manquent pas pour justifier ce choix. Historiquement, la physique classique est bien le domaine dans lequel s'est pour la première fois épanouie une méthodologie fondée sur la confrontation entre une hypothèse et l'observation. De plus, il est incontestable que cette approche conduisit en physique à des résultats spectaculaires, entre autres une maîtrise des processus de transformation de la matière qui bouleversa littéralement le monde dans lequel nous vivons. Les spécialistes des 27

Plant exposure to salinity is rapidly followed by a decrease in growth rate. Most of the physiolo... more Plant exposure to salinity is rapidly followed by a decrease in growth rate. Most of the physiologists interpreted this phenomenon as a direct consequence of metabolic perturbations induced by NaCI. This mechanistic approach has been briefly analysed in this review, together with many observations which contradict it, such as: (i) the lack of correlation between metabolic perturbations and decrease in growth foJ/owing exposure to salinity; (ii) the large difference between sensitivity to salinity of the whole plant and its cells in culture; (iii) the alleviation of growth inhibition by salinity, by phytohormonal treatments; (iv) the ability of plants to adapt to high levels of salinity within a few weeks. A "whole plant approach" of the growth reduction by a saline environment is presented in the light of recent experimental data. It is argued that, for plants exposed to a sublethal level of salinity, the primary cause for reduction in growth rate is not the direct inhibiting effect of Na+ or cr ions on metabolic processes. The decrease in growth rate is rather due to a change in hormonal balance of the plant, which originates from a modulation of hormone production by the root, the organ sensing the soil environment. Therefore, metabolic perturbations, considered in the mechanistic approach as the cause for growth reduction, are consequent to hormonal changes induced by the presence of NaCI. These considerations allow the reconciliation of many of the contradicting results which were accumulated in the literature during the search for a hypothetiC "limiting factor" of growth in saline environment. It also provides an explanation for the ability of plants to adapt to lethal levels of salinity within a few weeks. Improvemerlt of salinity tolerance, in crop plants, was conditioned by the identification of the main toxic effect of NaCI on plant metabolism, and by selection of plants which overcome it. As a consequence of this new approach, radical changes are foreseeable in future research in improvement of salinity tolerance in crop plants.

Tolerance to salinity varies throughout plant development. Stable phenophases with a relatively-d... more Tolerance to salinity varies throughout plant development. Stable phenophases with a relatively-defined level of tolerance are interspaced with transition periods during which, in some species, an increase in tolerance may be achieved. This adaptive response involves changes at many levels of biological organization, from gene expression to inter-organ relationships. They include overexpression of protective proteins, control of Na+ uptake, changes in photosynthetic metabolism, restructuring of the hormonal balance and modification of the cellular sensitivity to growth factors. Individuality is endemic to this adaptive response, and results from an extreme sensitivity to environmental and developmental factors during its maturation. For this reason, the adaptive response is interpreted as an expression of the nonlinear dynamics characterizing the transitory period between two stable developmental phases. Accordingly, plant response to salinity is reconsidered as the mutual expression of a pre-existing (genetic) component and the self-organized dynamics of its rearrangement. 14.1 Towards a non-linear approach of plant response to salinity Exposure to salinity induces modifications at all levels of biological organization, from gene expression to whole plant physiology and development. Hundreds of reports are focused on a given change, comparing tile response of salt-tolerant and salt-sensitive species or genotypes. However, it remains difficult to integrate all these modifications into a general framework of plant response to stress. Concerning salt tolerance, a cellular basis is observed in some species but not in others, and growth inhibition is not always proportional to tile accumulation of Na+ and cr ions in the shoot (see below). It seems, therefore, that there are many ways to cope with presence of sublethal concentrations of NaCI in the root medium, disproving any unifying scheme for tolerance. Nevertheless, plant tolerance is assumed to be a stable function of the genetic 291 A. Lduchli and U. Liittge (eds.), Salinity: Environment-Plants> Molecules, 291-312.

The growth response of Sorghum bicolor was followed for 34 days for plants exposed to modified nu... more The growth response of Sorghum bicolor was followed for 34 days for plants exposed to modified nutrient concentrations from day 8 (early-treated) and from day 12 (late-treated) following imbibition. In late-treated plants, the effect of nutrient starvation on growth rate increased with time. In contrast, the influence of nutrient starvation was not cumulative in early-treated plants, and the rate of growth was stabilized (with regard to plants growing in a standard medium) after about ten days of treatment. This suggests an adaptive adjustment of early-treated plants to low-nutrient concentration. Differences between early and late-treated plants suggest that expression of this adaptive response is possible only during a critical period in development, the same already identified for salt-adaptation in Sorghum. A similar relationship between shoot weight and blade length was observed for all the early-treated plants. This contrasts with the two relationships noticed for late-treated plants exposed to similar conditions, suggesting the coexistence of two discrete modes of regulation of leaf length with shoot growth. Such a difference indicates that not only adaptive response, but also developmental homeostasis and plasticity are conditioned by synchronization between environmental changes (exogenous factor) and emergence of a critical period during development (endogenous factor).

The coefficient of,variation of some anatomical and rnysiological parameters has been measured in... more The coefficient of,variation of some anatomical and rnysiological parameters has been measured in plants->: Sorghum bico/or (L.) Moench exposed to conditions inducing adaptation to salt. The kinetic analysis of the variabilityof shoot DWand shoot Na+ concentration revealed a specific phase of increase in variability between days 6 an~ 16 following exposure to salinity. The increase in var:iability observed in a population of adapted plants, as compared to a population of control plants, appeared as a whole plant process since variability for most of the parameters were positively correlated. Variability within plant populations of 11 Sorghum genotypes, each presenting a different capacity for adaptation, was determin.ed during the middle of the adaptation process. A strong linkage between the level of adaptation and the increase in variability was observed. The relatively Iow level of variability observed in populations of Sorghum varieties which did not adapt to salinity suggested that the increase invariability was not ~ direct consequence of exposure to stress conditions, but that it was specifically related to the adaptation proc,ess. The data presented suggest the occurrence of modifications at the level of genome expression during the adaptation process.

In Sorghum bicolor, perturbations in reproductive development observed following salt-treatment a... more In Sorghum bicolor, perturbations in reproductive development observed following salt-treatment also influence progeny grown in the absence of NaCl. However, a developmental reversion of these modifications may be observed throughout two successive generations. This response, termed canalization, does not spontaneously occur following growth in the absence of NaCl, but is triggered by the level of perturbation in parental expression of reproductive characters. Moreover, canalization is not specific to the perturbed character, but it includes modifications in reproductive development as a whole. A decrease in developmental variability coincides with amplitude of the developmental reversion. This phenomenon is interpreted as an evidence for orientation of the developmental process towards the lowest free-energy state of the 'epigenetic landscape'. Involvement of this phenomenon of canalization in developmental stability, adaptiveness, and evolution is discussed. Moreover, these results point to the need for a posteriori methods of investigations in order to analyze self-organized transformations in biological systems.

Connectance, the level of linkage between organs, was measured in different lines of Sorghum bico... more Connectance, the level of linkage between organs, was measured in different lines of Sorghum bicolor during their reproductive development. It was compared with expression of characters, their level of variability and their heritability. A negative relationship is observed between connectance and heritability. Further results indicate that connectance does not simply introduce a noise factor in expression of a pre-existing information, but that it is directly involved in phenotypic expression and plasticity. Connectance appears as partly determined by the nature and dynamics of the network of relationships. It is concluded that the phenotype is not restricted to the deterministic expression of a pre-existing program, the genotype. Morphogenesis also involves another dimension, self-organized, which confers reliability, stability and adaptability to the developmental processes. The complex interactions between these two dimensions and their evolutionary consequences are discussed.

Development is not a continuous phenomenon. Rather, phenophases are interspaced with short critic... more Development is not a continuous phenomenon. Rather, phenophases are interspaced with short critical periods. This phenomenon reflects an alternance between stabilization (during a phenophase) and dismantling (during a critical period) of a network of between-organ relationships generating the organism. Networks of relationships may be compared to dissipative systems in physics. In this context, a critical period represents a transient phase of isolation of the systems enabling its evolution towards equilibrium. As suggested here, this transition from dissipative to isolated system represents the source of newly emerging dissipative structures in which environmental or developmental perturbations are adaptively integrated. In contrast to non-living systems, an endogenous control of the transition towards critical period seems to exist during development. By extension to other scales of biological organization, it is suggested that the capacity to self-define its status (dissipative or close-to-equilibrium) represents the key property of living systems. This asks for a reconsideration of some basic notions about life, such as the role of genes in normal development, in physiological adaptation, and even in the emergence of evolutionary novelty.

In roots of Pisum sativum seedlings, the average lag-time required for initiation of the gravitro... more In roots of Pisum sativum seedlings, the average lag-time required for initiation of the gravitropic response was reduced proportionally to the concentration of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) added to the root solution (range of 10-13 to 10-8 M concentrations). A treatment with clotrimazole, a compound inhibiting steroid synthesis, prevents initiation of the gravitropic response. This effect was partly reverted by addition of EBL. From analysis of variability in the populations, it is suggested that BR conditions the root curvature through a gravitropic-induced change in sensitivity to the PGRs regulating cell elongation.

During adaptation to salinity, plants of Sorghum bicofor showed malformations affecting the leave... more During adaptation to salinity, plants of Sorghum bicofor showed malformations affecting the leaves in development (DPL). At tbe end of the adaptation process, the plants were regrouped according to their pattern of DPL Iesponse. The distribution of the plant population in diierent patterns depended on environmental conditions. However, a positive relationship between the frequency of a pattern and its rate of development has been found. Similarly, a negative relation between the frequency of a pattern and the rate of senescence for the same pattern has been observed. The results reveal the exis&nce of an orientation of the plant response towards the patterns with highest developmental rate and lowest rate of-ce. This property is defined as 'adaptive determinism'. Results indicate that the NaCl acts as a trigger for adapt&ion to a whole range of environmental perturbations. This suggests that adaptation to salin-ity is not a pm-programed response of the plants, and may be related to learning processes occurring in animals.

In plant physiology, data analysis is based on the comparison of mean values. In this perspective... more In plant physiology, data analysis is based on the comparison of mean values. In this perspective, variability around the mean value has no significance per se , but only for estimating statistical significance of the difference between two mean values. Another approach to variability is proposed here, derived from the difference between redundant and deterministic patterns of regulation in their capacity to buffer noise. From this point of view, analysis of variability enables the investigation of the level of redundancy of a regulation pattern, and even allows us to study its modifications. As an example, this method is used to investigate the effect of brassinosteroids (BSs) during vegetative growth in Sorghum bicolor. It is shown that, at physiological concentrations, BSs modulate the network of regulation without affecting the mean value. Thus, it is concluded that the physiological effect of BSs cannot be revealed by comparison of mean values. This example illustrates how a part of the reality (in this case, the most relevant one) is hidden by the classical methods of comparison between mean values. The proposed tools of analysis open new perspectives in understanding plant development and the non-linear processes involved in its regulation. They also ask for a redefinition of fundamental concepts in physiology, such as growth regulator, optimality, stress and adaptation.

Israel Journal of Plant Sciences, 2000

ABSTRACT

Adaptive changes in bacteria are generally considered to result from random mutations selected by... more Adaptive changes in bacteria are generally considered to result from random mutations selected by the environment. This interpretation is challenged by the non-randomness of genomic changes observed following ageing or starvation in bacterial colonies. A theory of adaptive targeting of sequences for enzymes involved in DNA transactions is proposed here. It is assumed that the sudden leakage of cAMP consecutive to starvation induces a rapid drop in the ATP/ADP ratio that inactivates the homeostasis in control of the level of DNA supercoiling. This phase change enables the emergence of local modifications in chromosome topology in relation to the missing metabolites, a first stage in expression of an adaptive status in which DNA transactions are induced. The nonlinear perspective proposed here is homologous to that already suggested for adaptation of pluricellular organisms during their development. In both cases, phases of robustness in regulation networks for genetic expression are interspaced by critical periods of breakdown of the homeostatic regulations during which, through isolation of nodes from a whole network, specific changes with adaptive value may locally occur.

Leaf development of salt-treated Sorghum bicolor plants is influenced by treatment with 24-epibra... more Leaf development of salt-treated Sorghum bicolor plants is influenced by treatment with 24-epibrassinolide (EBL), but only during a short period in development. This transient sensitivity coincides with a critical period of reorganization of regulations already identified in Sorghum, during which adaptation (through integration of effects of external perturbation in the new regulation network) is possible. By measuring the effect of EBL on leaf malformations during their unfolding in plants exposed to 150 mM NaCl, it is shown that treatments with brassinosteroids (BR) enable modification of initiation, duration, and intensity of this critical period of reorganization. A critical period is characterized by modification of cell sensitivity to informative substances. Accordingly, it is suggested that BR, at specific concentrations and time in development, may induce changes in cellular sensitivity to many growth regulators. The parallels in the effects of EBL and NaCl suggest that the transient inhibition in leaf elongation is not directly caused by the perturbation (addition of EBL or sublethal NaCl treatment). Rather, it results from interference between an exogenous perturbation and the structure of the regulation network.

Die Naturwissenschaften, 2002

The emergence of the genetic code remains an enigma. Proposed mechanisms are based on random, his... more The emergence of the genetic code remains an enigma. Proposed mechanisms are based on random, historical, thermodynamic and natural selection. However, they introduce chance as a key factor for overcoming the difficulties encountered by the model. We propose here a model in which three successive levels of chemical specificity generated the nucleotide assignments of amino acids in the genetic code. The first level results from hydrophobic and stereospecific interactions between amino acids and short oligonucleotides (termed oligons). The second and third levels of specificity are determined by conditions of energy transfer from loaded oligons (amino acid-oligomer covalently linked) to formation of phosphodiester bond (second level of specificity) and peptidic bond (third level of specificity), while these reactions are catalyzed by RNA templates. This model is sustained by the relationships observed between dipole moments of the nucleotides (forming the anticodon) and reactivity of ...

« Aujourd’hui plus que jamais, la conception de l’être vivant comme machine est indissolublement ... more « Aujourd’hui plus que jamais, la conception de l’être vivant comme machine est indissolublement liée au fait que nous vivons dans une société capitaliste et industrielle : elle reflète ce que les instances qui dominent la société voudraient que le vivant soit, afin de pouvoir en faire ce que bon leur semble. »

Plant Biology, 2001

... roots (Amzallag, 1999 b[5]). Developmental changes at the whole plant level are able to influ... more ... roots (Amzallag, 1999 b[5]). Developmental changes at the whole plant level are able to influence physiological regulations, such as root-to-shoot dy-namics of nutrient transport (Schurr, 1999[35]). In Sorghum, the functional ...

Vetus Testamentum, 2014

Psalm 87 is generally interpreted as a song of pilgrimage praising Jerusalem as the ‘mother of na... more Psalm 87 is generally interpreted as a song of pilgrimage praising Jerusalem as the ‘mother of nations’. This theme is, however, unknown in the Bible. Furthermore, both the structure and meaning of psalm 87 remain very obscure in this thematic context of interpretation. Alternatively, the present analysis suggests that psalm 87 evokes the diffusion abroad of the musical worship of yhwh by Korahite singers, its contribution to the fame of Zion, and of this congregation of singers. It also deals with the mutual commitment between the Jerusalemite singers and their peers living far away. A coherent articulation of these meanings emerges after setting the psalm in cross responsa fashion, a mode of complex antiphony in which distant cola are combined through the intertwinement of voices during performance. This interpretation is supported by biblical sources evoking the presence of Jerusalemite singers in foreign lands and their involvement in local musical worship of yhwh. The esoteric ...

Israel J Plant Sci, 2000

ABSTRACT

Plant, Cell and Environment, 1998