Donald M Broom | University of Cambridge (original) (raw)

Motivation and behaviour development by Donald M Broom

Animals, 2022

Stereotypies comprise a wide range of repeated and apparently functionless behaviors that develop... more Stereotypies comprise a wide range of repeated and apparently functionless behaviors that develop in individuals whose neural condition or environment results in poor welfare. While stereotypies are an indicator of poor welfare at the time of occurrence, they may have various consequences.
Environmental enrichment modifies causal factors and reduces the occurrence of stereotypies, providing evidence that stereotypies are an indicator of poor welfare. However, stereotypy occurrence and
consequences change over time. Furthermore, there are complex direct and epigenetic effects when mother mammals that are kept in negative conditions do or do not show stereotypies. It is proposed that, when trying to deal with challenging situations, stereotypies might initially help animals to cope.
After further time in the conditions, the performance of the stereotypy may impair brain function and change brain connections, neurophysiology and eventually neuroanatomy. It is possible that reported neuroanatomical changes are an effect of the stereotypy rather than a cause.

Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 29, 1-3. , 2019

Although most abnormal behaviors, including all stereotypies, indicate poor welfare, some that oc... more Although most abnormal behaviors, including all stereotypies, indicate poor welfare, some that occurs in rare situations is functional and does not indicate a negative situation. There is a wide range of abnormal behaviors that occur in conditions where the animal’s needs are not met, and these can be valuable welfare indicators but should never be called vices. Some behaviors, both normal and abnormal, can be used as motivation-modifying methods. They affect subsequent behavior and physiology, including feelings and emotions. The feelings and emotions in turn affect future behavior. Such complex mechanisms are a part of the regulatory functioning of sentient animals. The existence of these mechanisms helps to explain some abnormal behaviors and their consequences.

Proceedings of the Australian Veterinary Association Annual Conference, Perth, 77-78. St Leonards, NSW: Australian Veterinary Association., 2019

The methods for the scientific assessment of the welfare of animals during transport are now well... more The methods for the scientific assessment of the welfare of animals during transport are now well-established and precise, at least for the main farm species. Factors affecting welfare include: knowledge and attitudes of staff involved, laws, codes of practice, training, species, breed, previous experience of the animals, vehicle design, space allowance for animals, duration of journey, tying, mixing, staff payment method, planning of journey, handling during loading and unloading, driving quality, bad physical conditions during journeys and quality of animal monitoring. When deciding whether or not a particular animal transport system or practice should be permitted, the risk of poor welfare should be assessed. Publicity about events that have very negative consequences for animal welfare can be very costly for commercial companies, or for whole countries, because large numbers of consumers may refuse to buy the products of the company or country.

In: Choe, J.C. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior, (2nd ed.). vol. 1, pp. 80–83. Elsevier, Academic Press. , 2019

Welfare is a scientific concept that refers to all living animals including humans. The welfare o... more Welfare is a scientific concept that refers to all living animals including humans. The welfare of an individual is its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment. Hence welfare incorporates the individual’s feelings and health as well as the functioning of various physiological, behavioral, and other adaptive mechanisms. Research by animal welfare scientists has provided information about the needs of a wide range of animals kept by man. Knowledge of these needs allows the provision of conditions in which the welfare of the animals will be good. The relationships between the concept of welfare and those of health, pain, needs, stress, feelings, quality of life and euthanasia are discussed. There are many scientific measures of welfare used in research and also welfare outcome indicators that can be used when legislation or codes of practice are being checked during an inspection.

Animals, 2022

Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 29, 1-3. , 2019

Proceedings of the Australian Veterinary Association Annual Conference, Perth, 77-78. St Leonards, NSW: Australian Veterinary Association., 2019

In: Choe, J.C. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior, (2nd ed.). vol. 1, pp. 80–83. Elsevier, Academic Press. , 2019

Two groups of 12 dairy cows were identified from a group of 70 cows according to the consistency ... more Two groups of 12 dairy cows were identified from a group of 70 cows according to the consistency with which they voluntarily entered one of two sides of a milking parlour during 25 milkings. The mean proportion for high consistency (HC) cows was 91% (range 86–97%), and for the low consistency (LC) cows was 60% (range 50–71%). We examined whether this characteristic related to their behaviour in a novel environment or to their ability to gain food in a competitive environment. The cows were observed in the novel environment, an empty pen near the parlour, for 15 min after milking. They were then subjected to a paired food-competition test, in which a particular cow was introduced to the pen and they were provided with a bucket of feed. This lasted for a maximum of 15 min or until the two cows stopped interacting or feeding. In the empty pen test, HC cows spent longer standing motionless (mean 665 s) than LC cows (mean 521 s) (P = 0.02), which may indicate increased fear. However, the time spent sniffing the pen and the number of steps and vocalisations was similar for the HC and LC cows (P > 0.10). In the food-competition test, HC cows took less time to start feeding (70 s) than LC cows (137 s) (P = 0.04) and spent considerably more time in control of the food bucket (HC 151 s, LC 19 s) (P = 0.01). They also instigated more aggressive interactions (C 3.4, IC 0.6) (P = 0.05) and tended to push the other cow more times (HC 2.8, LC 0.5) (P = 0.06). HC cows stood inactive for longer (222 s) than LC cows (373 s) (P = 0.04). Thus there was some evidence that cows consistently entering one side of the parlour were more fearful in novel situations, but substantial evidence that they were more dominant over other cows in gaining access to resources.

Dairy cows often have to choose which of two sides to enter in the milking parlour. Some cows are... more Dairy cows often have to choose which of two sides to enter in the milking parlour. Some cows are very consistent in this choice, and it is common to assume that when these cows are more disturbed are being milked in their non-preferred side. Such disturbance might involve significantly poor welfare. In order to assess this assumption, we decided to study the behaviour and milk yield of dairy cows and their relationships with side preference in the milking parlour. The study was carried out at Cambridge University Farm, in a two-sided tandem milking parlour. The data collection followed the daily management routine. We recorded the side chosen by each cow (left or right) during 40 milking sessions. Data from 70 cows, which were present in at least 25 milking sessions (mode 􏰆 36), were included in the statistical analysis. Cows' reactivity (CR) during premilking udder preparation, time spent ®tting the milking cluster (FT), milk yield (MY) and duration of milking (DM) were measured. There was evident individual variation in the consistency of side choice. Individual differences (ANOVA, P < 0.001) were also found in CR, FT, MY and DM; although these variables were not significantly affected by the side or the interaction animal 􏰁 side (p<0.05). The comparison between left and right side means (paired t- test) of these variables did not show significant differences (P < 0.05). We concluded that there is no evidence that the cows were discomforted or stressed when milked in the non-preferred side of the milking parlour.

Individual recognition, social facilitation, learning from mothers about food, responding to demo... more Individual recognition, social facilitation, learning from mothers about food, responding to demonstrator animal, cognitive ability and awareness reviewed.

Animal Behaviour, 1995

... Meikle, DB Drickamer, LC 1986. Food availability and secondary sex ratio variation in wild an... more ... Meikle, DB Drickamer, LC 1986. Food availability and secondary sex ratio variation in wild and laboratory house mice (Mus musculus). ... Effects of nutritional change on captive mule deer. J. Wildl. ... h5creased adrenal responsiveness related to social stress in rhesus monkeys. ...

Choice tests have been widely used to assess animal preferences. In the case of group-living spec... more Choice tests have been widely used to assess animal preferences. In the case of group-living species, these tests are commonly presented to animals in groups, because isolation can have strong effects on behaviour and motivation. However, assessing preference at the group level could be misleading if strong control of movement, through influential individuals, and group cohesion were present. The needs of majority of the population might not be properly represented by the test results. The current study investigated whether or not groups of ducks (four ducklings per group) have individuals that consistently initiate movement and considered the implications for group cohesion, synchronisation and a measure of preference during a choice test. In all groups included in the analyses, there were ducks that initiated more movements than the rest, and this trend was stronger when leading towards areas providing resources such as pools. Also, more ducks preferentially followed the first initiator (birds initiating most movements within a group) into the bathing area. Group cohesion was higher in groups that frequently had the same individual initiating movement. The number of followers following the ducks that initiated most movements was associated with the measure of preference (time spent at preferred area, as a proportion of total time spent at any area) but the number of movements initiated by these individuals was not. These results highlight the need to consider the effects of initiators and group-cohesive forces when conducting choice tests in groups of animals.

When the ISAE was formed in 1966, studies of farm, companion or other animals kept by humans were... more When the ISAE was formed in 1966, studies of farm, companion or other animals kept by humans were thought of as a side issue for real science, and those who did such work were considered to be second-rate scientists. Since that time, applied ethology has moved on to become an established and respected scientific discipline. Many of the major contributions to our understanding of motivation in recent years have come from work on domestic animals. The causation of many behaviours that are used as welfare indicators has been explored, and much work on the mechanisms controlling behaviour development has been done on farm animals. On a global scale, the work of ISAE members, through their collective knowledge and expertise, has played a significant role in the development of animal welfare legislation and global policies. This chapter explores how far reaching the impact of the ISAE has been. Since the early 1980s the work of ISAE members has been widely used by the EU in determining the current state of the scientific knowledge prior to drafting new animal welfare legislation. Consistently ISAE members have been part of the EU scientific working groups as well as serving on committees for the World Organisation for Animal Health and the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. The work of ISAE members continues to spread through publications in Applied Animal Behaviour Science, the official journal of the ISAE, and other related journals. Annual ISAE conferences and regional conferences have focused on broadening the scope of and influence of this science, with meetings aimed at increasing the utilisation of research in particular areas, such as encouraged collaboration between applied ethologists and agricultural economists. In recent years, the ISAE has become involved with education and information provision on animal welfare. Looking forward, it is anticipated that the ISAE will continue to have strong impact in education as well as in research related to genetics, environment and management of captive and domestic species.

Animal Science, 2001

Experimental study of piglet crushing by sows and the sow behaviour associated with it.

― Influence du type d'anesthésie sur le taux de cortisol, de fi-endorphines et sur le ryth... more ― Influence du type d'anesthésie sur le taux de cortisol, de fi-endorphines et sur le rythme cardiaque chez le porc. Au cours de deux expérimentations l'effet de l'anesthésie (métomi-date ou kétamine) a été recherché sur les taux plasmatiques de cortisol et de {3-endorphine, ainsi que sur le rythme cardiaque. Vingt porcelets d'environ 20 kg de poids vif ont été placés dans des loges individuelles. Les conditions thermiques étaient optimales ; la nourriture et l'eau étaient dis-tribuées ad libitum. Quand les porcelets ont été habitués au contact humain, un cathéter a été implanté dans la veine jugulaire sous anesthésie à l'halothane. Après la guérison, chaque heure, un échantil-lon de sang a été prélevé pendant une période de 27 heures pour déterminer les valeurs de référence. Puis la moitié des porcelets a été anesthésiée par une injection de métomidate ou de kétamine, suivie par la collecte des échantillons de sang. Dans le plasma les taux de cortisol et de j3-endorphine ont été déterminés. Au cours d'une autre épreuve, le rythme cardiaque a été mesuré avant, pendant et après l'anesthésie. Le type d'anesthésie a eu une influence sur le taux de corüsol et le rythme cardiaque. Le taux de cortisol a augmenté cinq fois après une injection de kétamine, de même que le taux de {3-endor-phine après une injection de kétamine ou métomidate. Le taux de corüsol a augmenté seulement deux fois après une injection de métomidate. Ce résultat suggère un effet suppressif du métamidate sur le taux de cortisol plasmatique. L'augmentation du rythme cardiaque était liée à l'activité d'éveil, plus laborieuse en cas d'injection de kétamine. porc / anesthésie / cortisol / {3-endorphine / rythme cardiaque

In: Endres, M. ed. Understanding the Behaviour and Improving the Welfare of Dairy Cattle, 1-13. Cambridge, UK, Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing. , 2021

Welfare and other aspects of sustainability are becoming increasingly important in consumer purch... more Welfare and other aspects of sustainability are becoming increasingly important in consumer purchasing decisions. This chapter introduces a number of key welfare issues affecting the dairy industry that need system change, including lameness, mastitis and aspects of calf management. Other major topics concerning the sustainability of dairy production are: minimising grain use, feeding high protein leaves of shrubs and trees, reducing greenhouse gas emissions such as by changing diet to reduce methane output, and improving labelling and traceability.

Livro de Resumos das XX Jornadas das Associação Portuguesa de Buiatria, eds M. Quaresma, D. Silva, H. Quintas e R. Romão, 48-49. Lisboa: Associação Portuguesa de Buiatria., 2019

O mau bem-estar de vacas leiteiras e animais em feedlots leva a atitudes públicas negativas em re... more O mau bem-estar de vacas leiteiras e animais em feedlots leva a atitudes públicas negativas em relação aos produtos.

Calves were either isolated, spatially but not visually, or group-reared for eight months and the... more Calves were either isolated, spatially but not visually, or group-reared for eight months and then kept together. Rank orders based upon competitive interactions were similar at eight and 20 months. Almost all group-reared animals were higher in rank than all isolation-reared animals. The most frequent nearest neighbour associations were between group-reared animals especially those from the same rearing group. Also frequent at eight months were associations between calves which had been isolated in adjacent pens. Isolation-reared animals associated infrequently with group-reared animals and spent more time alone. Body weight was not correlated with rearing conditions or with behavioural measures. Increase, or decrease, in rank between eight and 20 months was associated with faster, or slower, than average weight gain .

Lameness in cattle is a major welfare problem and has important economic implications. It is kno... more Lameness in cattle is a major welfare problem and has important economic implications. It is known that lameness has a multifactorial causation; however, it is still not clear why some individuals are more susceptible than others to present foot lesions under the same environment. Social and individual behaviour is thought to play an important role. The aim of this study was to assess the possible relationships between social behaviour, individual time budgets, and the incidence of lameness in 40 dairy cows. The incidence of lameness in the group of cows observed was 42%. There were no differences in the mean time standing between low-, middle- and high-ranking cows. Low-ranking cows spent more time standing still in passageways and standing half in the cubicles than middle- and high-ranking cows. No differences were found in the mean time standing between cows that got lame and cows that did not get lame. However, cows that got clinically lame spent longer standing half in the cubicles and had a significantly lower index of displacements than those cows that did not get lame. This study may offer a starting point to better understand the relationships between behaviour and the occurrence of lameness in dairy cows.

Routledge Handbook of Animal Welfare, A. Knight, C. Phillips and P. Sparks, eds, 12-21, 2022

The concept of welfare in animals, including humans, is defined and explained. Other, related con... more The concept of welfare in animals, including humans, is defined and explained. Other, related concepts: health, stress, needs and pain are also defined and explained. The magnitude of positive or negative welfare is a measurable function of intensity and duration.

Veterinarski Glasnik, 2021

Consumers of food and other products now demand sustainability of production methods and, for mos... more Consumers of food and other products now demand sustainability of production methods and, for most people, the welfare of production animals is an important component of sustainability. Products are not considered to be of good quality unless the welfare of the production animals is good. This is part of a more general change in knowledge that there are few differences between humans and other animal species, with the conclusion that each individual life should be valued and that causing poor welfare to a farmed animal is morally wrong. All vertebrate animals and some invertebrates are now shown to be sentient, that is they have the capacity to have feelings. There have been major advances in animal welfare science so that housing and management systems that result in poor welfare of the animals are now identified and every producer needs to change their systems and methods to ensure good welfare and avoid all of the worst welfare problems.

Stress and Animal Welfare: Key Issues in the Biology of Humans and Other Animals, 2nd edn., 2019

The self-contained chapters with reference lists are: One welfare, one health, one stress, human... more The self-contained chapters with reference lists are:
One welfare, one health, one stress, humans and other animals,
Adaptation, regulation, sentience and brain control,
Limits to adaptation,
Stress and welfare: history and usage of concepts,
Assessing welfare: short-term responses,
Assessing welfare: long-term responses,
Preference studies and welfare,
Ethics: considering world issues,
Stress and welfare in the world.

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 2019

Effective management of pain is critical to the improvement of animal welfare. For this to happen... more Effective management of pain is critical to the improvement of animal welfare. For this to happen, pain must be recognised and assessed in a variety of contexts. Pain is a complex phenomenon, making reliable, valid, and feasible measurement challenging. The use of facial expressions as a technique to assess pain in non-verbal human patients has been widely utilised for many years. More recently this technique has been developed for use in a number of non-human species: rodents, rabbits, ferrets, cats, sheep, pigs and horses. Facial expression scoring has been demonstrated to provide an effective means of identifying animal pain and in assessing its severity, overcoming some of the limitations of other measures for pain assessment in animals. However, there remain limitations and challenges to the use of facial expression as a welfare assessment tool which must be investigated. This paper reviews current facial expression pain scales ("Grimace Scales"), discussing the general conceptual and methodological issues faced when assessing pain, and highlighting the advantages of using facial expression scales over other pain assessment methods. We provide guidance on how facial expression scales should be developed so as to be valid and reliable, but we also provide guidance on how they should be used in clinical practice.

In: Choe, J.C. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior, (2nd ed.). vol. 3, pp. 423–428. Elsevier, Academic Press. , 2019

Welfare assessment requires a wide range of measures as there are many ways in which individuals ... more Welfare assessment requires a wide range of measures as there are many ways in which individuals cope with the environment in which they live. Welfare can be good or poor so the measures of behavior, physiology, brain function, immune system function, injury etc. must provide information about positive and negative states. Measures of feelings and of health are of particular importance. Behaviors such as stereotypies, lack of or abnormal responsiveness, and excessive aggression are direct indicators of poor welfare. They are especially important when the welfare problems are of long duration. In addition, the behavior of animals is also needed to interpret other welfare measures such as adrenal cortex activity and some aspects of brain function. Glucocorticoids and heart-rate are useful indicators of short-term welfare problems. Acute phase proteins, immune system measures and pathology indicators provide information about welfare in the longer term. In most scientific studies of animal welfare, a combination of behavioral and other measures is needed. The strengths of preferences of animals, for or against resources or environmental impacts give information about needs. They are best indicated, using the methodology of microeconomics, by indices of demand, such as the consumer surplus, that are assessed using behavioral experimental studies.

The definitions of the term stress are often confusing and should not be linked to cortisol, whic... more The definitions of the term stress are often confusing and should not be linked to cortisol, which is a valuable welfare indicator, but context is needed to interpret it.

Discussion about animal welfare issues, especially farm animals.

The contents of this book are detailed in the uploaded preface.

This review, which focuses on foie gras production from ducks in France, highlights welfare probl... more This review, which focuses on foie gras production from ducks in France, highlights welfare problems that may arise in the final (third) stage of production, when force-feeding occurs and which lasts 12 to 15 days. Welfare problems arising in the first two stages are also considered. The male mulard duck, a non-migratory hybrid between a muscovy drake (Cairina moschata) and a female domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos), is used most frequently despite being fearful, nervous and maladapted to force-feeding conditions. During the period of force-feeding mortality is 2 to 6%, higher than in fattening units for meat production. Welfare deteriorates markedly as ducks progress through the three production stages. Posture and gait abnormalities and wing lesions develop, and contact dermatitis is widespread and often severe. Oesophagitis and other injuries are documented. Steatosis and other liver changes are pathological and can limit duck survival. Group housing necessitates the use of crowd-gates to facilitate force-feeding of birds, who show aversive behaviour towards the force-feeder. Cages are small, with a mesh floor without litter or a rest area. Access to open water for bathing or full immersion of the head may be insufficient and make thermoregulation difficult. We conclude that force-feeding causes very poor welfare in ducks and should not be practised. Should foie gras production without force-feeding become possible, duck livers should not reach a weight at which there are pathological effects. Inadequate housing and management conditions should be prevented by establishing limits for the prevalences of contact dermatitis (footpad and digits), breast lesions and gait abnormalities, which should not be exceeded prior to slaughter. Limits should also be established for the prevalence of wing and other body lesions after slaughter.

Access to open water is considered good for the welfare of Pekin ducks. These studies investigate... more Access to open water is considered good for the welfare of Pekin ducks. These studies investigated the effect water resource type provided over either straw bedding or a plastic mesh, on measures of duck health. Pekin strain ducklings (n=2600) were managed in pens of 100 on straw over a solid concrete floor. In study 1, one of 2 water resources, nipple (NIP; n = 5 pens) or wide lip bell drinker (WIDE; n= 5 pens) were located directly over the straw. In study 2 one of 3 water resources (Narrow lip bell drinker; n = 6 pens, TROUGH; n = 5 pens, and BATH; n = 5 pens) were located over a rubber mesh. On d16, d24, d29, d35 and d43 (study1) or d21, d29, d35 and d43 post-hatch (study 2), ten birds were selected from each pen, weighed, then feather hygiene, foot pad dermatitis (FPD), eye health, gait score and nostril condition scores taken. There was no effect of treatment on live weight in either study, but in study 2 ducks in the open water treatments overtook NARROW (P < 0.001) by d43. In study 1 there was no effect of treatment on hygiene scores, but scores increased over time (P<0.001). In study 2 ducks in the NARROW treatment were dirtier than BATH (P=0.01) with TROUGH intermediate. In both studies, ducks with bell drinkers had worse gait scores than the other treatments (Study1; P < 0.01: Study 2; P < 0.05). There was no effect of treatment on eye health score. However, ducks were less likely to have dirty nostrils with more open water resources in both studies (P < 0.01), or to have blocked nostrils in TROUGH and BATH than in NARROW in study 2 (P=0.01). Provision of open water, in particular over a properly constructed drainage area, improved some aspects of duck health (improved feather hygiene, and live weight, and fewer dirty and blocked nostrils). However, further work is needed to investigate these treatments at a commercial scale.

The preslaughter handling and transport of broilers are stressful operations which might affect ... more The preslaughter handling and transport of broilers are stressful operations which might affect the welfare and meat quality and could increase numbers of deaths before slaughter. However, the influence of thermal factors during transportation and lairage at slaughterhouses is complex in tropical regions, where increasing temperature and high relative humidity are the major concerns regarding animal survival before slaughter. In this study we assessed the influence of lairage time on preslaughter mortality rates of broiler chickens, transported in different seasons of the year in the tropics. Preslaughter data from 13,937 broiler flocks were recorded daily during 2006, in a commercial slaughterhouse at Brazil. The main factors which influenced mortality rate, analysed: daily, were mean dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity, lairage time, daily periods, density of broilers per crate, seasons of the year, stocking density per lorry, transport time and distance between farms and slaughterhouse. A holding area at the slaughterhouse with environmental control was assessed. Using a double generalized linear model for mean and dispersion modeling, the seasons were found to have significant effects (P < 0.005) on average mortality rates. The highest incidence was observed in summer (0.42%), followed by spring (0.39%), winter (0.28%) and autumn (0.23%). A decrease of preslaughter mortality of broilers during summer (P < 0.005) was observed when the lairage time was increased, mainly after 1 hour of exposure to a climatized environment. The positive influence of lairage time in a climatized environment was observed during the hottest seasons. Thus, a lairage time between 3 and 4 hours during the summer and spring is necessary to reduce the thermal load of broiler chickens.

Pekin ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domestica) are raised for meat, often in indoor intensive systems... more Pekin ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domestica) are raised for meat, often in indoor intensive systems. Research into the welfare of intensively reared ducks makes clear the importance of access to bathing water. Most researchers agree that bathing behaviours such as preening are important; however, the welfare implications of swimming are not so clear. A choice test was therefore designed to compare three depths of water: 10 cm, where ducks could stand but not swim; 20 cm, where ducks could stand and swim; and 30 cm, where ducks could swim but not stand. Ducks were housed in groups of four and each group had access to a shallow pool (10 cm), a deeper pool (either 20 or 30 cm) and two turkey bell drinkers which were added just as sources of clean drinking water. Observations were made between 29 and 48 days post-hatch. No difference was found between the usage of 10 and 20 cm deep pools, but ducks chose to use the 10 cm pools more than the 30 cm pools. This is a useful indication of duck preferences for water depth, but not a definitive measure because observations of bathing behaviour suggested that pools of different depths were used in different ways (30 cm pools were more suitable for swimming, but more dabbling was performed in the 10 cm pools than in deeper pools) and because not all groups of ducks made the same choices. Age had very little effect on bathing behaviour. Water cleanliness was also considered in the analysis: when the water was dirty, ducks spent less time inside the pools, spent less time sitting during bathing bouts and drank more from the bell drinkers. These results indicate that water depth and cleanliness have an impact on duck bathing behaviour.

Research in Veterinary Science, 1993

The Veterinary record, Jan 14, 1990

Walking and bouts of wing movement performed by 61-week-old ISA brown laying hens which had been ... more Walking and bouts of wing movement performed by 61-week-old ISA brown laying hens which had been taken from one batch of eggs and then kept in three different housing systems which allowed a gradation in spatial freedom, were recorded. After slaughter the breaking strengths of the humerus and tibia of birds from each system were measured. Birds from battery cages exhibited the fewest limb movements and had the weakest bones, their humeri having only 54 per cent of the strength of those of birds from a perchery. Birds from the Elson terrace system were heavier and had a stronger tibia than cage birds. Compared with perchery birds, terrace birds had weaker humeri and also performed fewer wing movements. The results indicate that the amount of movement possible for laying hens in battery cages was insufficient to avoid levels of osteopenia and consequent bone fragility much greater than in birds kept in the perchery and Elson terrace systems.

British Poultry Science, 2005

During the last 20-40 years, there has been a major change in the chickens kept for meat producti... more During the last 20-40 years, there has been a major change in the chickens kept for meat production. The rate of increase in body weight during growth is several times faster than it formerly was but the development of the legs and some physiological systems have changed much less. The conclusion of a European Union (EU) Scientific Report was that " the major welfare problems in broilers are those which can be regarded as side effects of the intense selection mainly for growth and feed conversion. These include leg disorders, ascites, sudden death syndrome in growing birds and welfare problems in breeding birds such as severe food restriction ". A consequence of leg weakness is that the birds crouch down on the litter and may develop dermatitis evident as hock-burn and breast blisters. These painful conditions are quantifiable in chicken carcasses. One way to address this problem is to change genetic selection criteria to slow growth. Another is to increase space allowance and to stimulate locomotion by having sufficient light and a more complex environment. Injury, walking disability and mortality rates can be monitored so that welfare can be improved. By this means, farms can be checked and payment linked to good welfare.

There are very serious problems for hens in battery cages which result in poor welfare. In order ... more There are very serious problems for hens in battery cages which result in poor welfare. In order to solve these, the basic needs of hens, including those to show certain behaviours must be met. This is not possible unless the space available and design allows the provision of: a nesting place, a perch, possibilities for dust-bathing and investigatory pecking, and room for walking and wing-flapping. No small cage can provide this. Design of hen accommodation and genetic selection of birds should be such that injurious pecking is minimised.
Broiler chickens must be genetically selected for stronger legs and slower growth. Stocking density must be limited and methods of enriching the environment in adequately illuminated conditions should be used.

Leg disorders in broilers are a major economic and welfare problem. The aetiology of many disorde... more Leg disorders in broilers are a major economic and welfare problem. The aetiology of many disorders is complex but includes genetics, growth rate (due to feed restriction or lighting regime), feed conversion efficiency and body conformation, exercise, circadian rhythms, nutrition and stocking density. These categories are not mutually exclusive as one aetiological factor may affect another. Many studies of leg disorders fail to identify the specific pathological condition underlying the observed lameness. However, disorders may be classified according to underlying pathology as infectious, developmental and degenerative. This classification is difficult because these categories are not mutually exclusive. Infectious conditions include bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO or femoral head necrosis, FHN), tenosynovitis and arthritis, infectious stunting syndrome (ISS) and viral induced neoplasia. Developmental conditions include varus valgus disease (VVD), rotated tibia, tibial dyschondroplasia (TD), rickets, chondrodystrophy and spondylolisthesis. Degenerative disorders include osteochondrosis (often TD), epiphyseolosis (often classified as FHN), degenerative joint disease (DJD), spontaneous rupture of the gastrocnemius tendon and contact dermatitis. BCO, TD, dermatitis and VVD are the most common disorders. Outbreaks of leg disorders are often site / context specific. The welfare of broilers with leg disorders may be impaired due to pain from the condition, an inability to walk leading to frustration and associated problems of being unable to feed and drink due to immobility (which may result in starvation). In assessing welfare, the individual broiler must be considered irrespective of the frequency of occurrence of the disorder. Most studies of welfare in relation to leg disorders have used a subjective gait scoring method (0 is normal walking and 5 is unable to walk). Gait scoring is a practical method for assessing broiler lameness in the field. The method provides a useful tool to employ in the field without recourse to pathological investigation and, while the method conflates conformity with pathology, it is a helpful and constructive additional method to assist in welfare studies. For birds with scores greater than 3, lameness may be viewed as severe enough to potentially impair welfare. It is difficult to assess all disorders in relation to frequency of occurrence and their impact on welfare due lack of evidence. BCO (or FHN and BCN) is the most common disorder and is often severe in form. TD (incl. epiphyseolysis) and rickets is common, often sub-clinical but when severe is a considerable impact on welfare. Contact dermatitis may be common under certain conditions and causes poor welfare when severe. Gastrocnemius tendon slippage, tenosynovitis, DJD and spondylolisthesis are not so common but are likely to cause poor welfare when they occur (i.e. pain and prevention of certain behaviours). VVD and rotated tibia can be common but tend not to be directly painful unless another condition is present. However, they can cause poor welfare if the bird is not culled and lead to an inability to walk, feed, drink and perform other behaviours. ISS, viral induced neoplasia and chondrodystrophy have only a small impact on welfare in the UK flock, the last because it is no longer encountered. To decrease the prevalence of leg disorders, growth rate needs to be decelerated: meal feeding, feed restriction during the early period of rearing, lower stocking densities and increased activity can result in a considerable reduction in leg problems. Continuous lighting should be avoided; overall the light period should be reduced. There also needs to be careful management of litter to prevent dermatitis. Factors in the diet are also important, particularly Ca, P and D3 which can prevent certain disorders 2 (e.g. TD). Further research is needed to establish the prevalence of disorders, underlying pathology in relation to subjective gait scores and analgesics in relation to pain mechanisms. A forum for discussion of these issues should be established and further control-trials conducted to investigate these factors.

Journal of Animal Behaviour and Biometeorology, 2020

This is a literature review of the effects of humans´ relationships with farm animals on animal p... more This is a literature review of the effects of humans´ relationships with farm animals on animal productivity and welfare, including the following topics: definition of the concept and description of different tests that have been developed to measure human-animal relationship (HAR). Temperament and tameness, which have been considered as farm animal characteristics that are important in HAR, as are stockperson attitudes. Some international farm animal welfare protocols are also described, together with negative and positive stimuli that affect farm animal welfare and productivity. In addition to some factors affecting the quality of HAR. We conclude that even with improved precision farming and automation: a) a good HAR is still fundamental to improve farm animal welfare with associated health and production benefits and b) with the numerous tests assessing fear of humans, many are not commercially applicable.

Farmed Animals, 1986

Introduction to farmed animals and their products.

Background: Cancer detection using sniffer dogs is a potential technology for clinical use and re... more Background: Cancer detection using sniffer dogs is a potential technology for clinical use and research. Our study sought to determine whether dogs could be trained to discriminate the odour of urine from men with prostate cancer from controls, using rigorous testing procedures and well-defined samples from a major research hospital.

Awareness is defined here as a state in which complex brain analysis is used to process sensory s... more Awareness is defined here as a state in which complex brain analysis is used to process sensory stimuli or constructs based on memory. Awareness is described using five headings: unaware, perceptual awareness, cognitive awareness, assessment awareness and executive awareness.

In: The Economics of Farm Animal Welfare: theory, evidence and policy, ed. B. Vosough Ahmadi, D. Moran, and R. D'Eath, 147-155. Wallingford, UK: CABI. ISBN: 9781786392312, 2020

In most countries of the world, sustainability issues are viewed by the public as of increasing i... more In most countries of the world, sustainability issues are viewed by the public as of increasing importance and animal welfare is perceived to be both a public good and a key aspect of these issues. EU animal welfare policy and legislation on animal welfare has helped animals, has had much positive influence in the world and has improved the public image of the EU. Health is a key part of welfare and the one health and one welfare approaches emphasise that the terms mean the same for humans and non-humans. The animals that humans use are described as sentient beings in EU legislation. Scientific information about animal welfare, like that produced by EFSA, is used in the formulation of the wide range of EU animal welfare laws. The European Commission has an animal welfare strategy including the Animal Welfare Platform. However, most kinds of animals kept in the EU are not covered by legislation, including some of the worst animal welfare problems, so a general animal welfare law and specific laws on several species are needed. Animal sentience and welfare should be mentioned, using accurate scientific terminology, in many trade-related laws as well as in animal-specific laws.

Animals, 2020

Simple Summary：In a situation where human actions are damaging much of the life of the world, it ... more Simple Summary：In a situation where human actions are damaging much of the life of the world, it is important to remember that the basic concepts of biology, welfare, and health are the same for humans and all other animals. Human actions have wide consequences and we need to change the way we interact with other living beings. An understanding of the concepts of one health, one welfare, one biology, and their application to daily decisions about production systems, public policies, markets, and consumers could mitigate current negative impacts. In particular, an understanding of human relationships with animals used for food, work, or company helps in dealing with challenges concerning their use and system sustainability, including the animal's welfare. Animal welfare should always be considered in our relationships with animals, not only for direct impacts, e.g. manipulations, but also for indirect effects, e.g., on the environment, disease spread, natural resource availability, culture, and society. Abstract：Excessive human population growth, uncontrolled use of natural resources, including deforestation, mining, wasteful systems, biodiversity reduction by agriculture, and damaging climate change affect the existence of all animals, including humans. This discussion is now urgent and people are rethinking their links with the animals we use for clothing, food, work, companionship, entertainment, and research. The concepts of one health, one welfare, and one biology are discussed as a background to driving global change. Nothing should be exploited without considering the ethics of the action and the consequences. This review concerns domesticated animals, including those used for human consumption of meat, eggs, and milk; horses kept for work; and dogs kept for company. Animal welfare includes health, emotional state, and comfort while moving and resting, and is affected by possibilities to show behavior and relationships with others of the same species or with humans. We show some examples of the relations between humans and domesticated animals in the environmental context, including zoonotic diseases, and consider the consequences and the new paradigms resulting from current awareness.

Encyclopaedia of Domestic Animals, 1986

Introduction to ethics of animal use and management methods.

In: The Evolution of Religion, Religiosity and Theology: A Multi-Level and Multi-Disciplinary Approach, J.R. Feierman and L. Oviedo eds, Chapter 4, 70-83. London: Routledge, , 2019

• Morality has a wide variety of biological components and has evolved in humans and other animal... more • Morality has a wide variety of biological components and has evolved in humans and other animals that live in social groups whose members stay together.
• Ethical questions include the welfare of animals and other sustainability issues.
• Whether or not nonhuman animals are thought of as being moral agents, they can be the subject of moral actions and so have moral value.
• Some of the qualities required to show moral behavior are also aspects of sentience.
• The concept of sentience has close parallels with those of psyche and soul.
• Contrary to the teachings of some religions, humans are animals, are similar to other animals and are not “special” in the sense of being more important.
• Modern doctrinal religions are a development of having a sophisticated moral code and are a structure to support it.
• All modern doctrinal religions have a moral code with a list of things to do or not do as a central aspect.
• Widespread empathy can be the basis for the concept of a spirit linking all sentient beings.
• We all have obligations, and we should describe the obligations of the actor rather than the rights of the actor. Arguments based on rights or on freedoms to act have sometimes been useful but can cause problems.
• Arguments that religion is a bad thing and that God is a delusion (Dawkins 2008) involve a misunderstanding of how natural selection has acted and are damaging to human societies.

In: Hild S. and Schweitzer L. (Eds), Animal Welfare: From Science to Law, 2019, 165-174. Translated from French, Paris: L’Harmattan, ISBN 978-2-9512167-4-7. , 2019

Animals kept as pets or for farming, including all mammals, birds and fish, have pain systems and... more Animals kept as pets or for farming, including all mammals, birds and fish, have pain systems and their welfare can be poor because of pain or fear. The extent of pain can be measured using physiological and behavioural measures such as thermography or grimace scales in sheep, horses and mice. It is important to evaluate the magnitude of poor welfare, a function of severity and duration.
In general, our laws prohibit treatment of animals that causes pain or other poor welfare. However, there are exceptions in laws for reasons of tradition, financial cost, gastronomic preference, convenience in management or breeding, or avoidance of other problems. Some activities that harm animals are considered to be “sport”. For example the bull pierced by numerous lances in the corrida, the deer chased by dogs and by humans on horseback, or the dog or cock forced to fight. These “sports” have entirely negative effects for the animal. Another example is the animal killed during shechita or halal slaughter without prior stunning. The justifications for this are: tradition, edict from an interpretation of a holy book, and the mistaken belief that blood in a carcass is in some way unclean.
Evidence from welfare assessment studies shows that: cutting the throat without prior stunning causes up to two minutes of extreme pain. Castration, disbudding, or beak-trimming, without anaesthetic or analgesic causes pain for many hours, and often leads to more prolonged pain because of neuroma formation. Tail removal prevents normal defence against flies in cattle and social signalling in pigs and dogs. Tail-biting by pigs and injurious behaviour by hens can be prevented by giving the animals manipulable materials and more space. This costs more but the painful procedures can be avoided. Foie-gras production necessitates confined rearing conditions, aversive force-feeding and failure of the detoxifying function of the liver so that death would result soon after the normal killing time. Caponising is a major operation that is painful and the wounds take some days to cease to cause pain. In all these cases, the main beneficiary is human and the cost is borne by the animal.

Proceedings of the Australian Veterinary Association Annual Conference, Perth, 81-82. St Leonards, NSW: Australian Veterinary Association., 2019

Most people consider that we have moral obligations to animals that we use and to the sustainabil... more Most people consider that we have moral obligations to animals that we use and to the sustainability of systems. Animal welfare affects public acceptability of animal usage systems and hence sustainability. Consumers may refuse to buy unacceptable products and pressurise retail companies and governments to ensure that they are not sold. Welfare is defined precisely and measured scientifically. Laws relating to animal welfare generally refer to sentient animals that have the capacity to have feelings. EFSA reports are commissioned before changes in E.U. legislation and have pioneered objective review of animal welfare issues. Good laws on animal welfare include a requirement for a duty of care for the animals. Welfare is now discussed in the International Whaling Commission. The W.T.O. has rejected a challenge to the E.U. legislation that banned seal products because of inhumane killing procedures, the first time that it has accepted animal welfare as an aspect of public morality that can be grounds for trade restriction.

Book review Broom, D.M. 2013. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 147, 243-244.

Animal welfare has become a growing concern affecting acceptability of agricultural systems in ma... more Animal welfare has become a growing concern affecting acceptability of agricultural systems in many countries around
the world. An earlier Judeo-Christian interpretation of the Bible (1982) that dominion over animals meant that any degree of exploitation
was acceptable has changed for most people to mean that each person has responsibility for animal welfare. This view was evident in
some ancient Greek writings and has parallels in Islamic teaching. A minority view of Christians, which is a widespread view of Jains,
Buddhists and many Hindus, is that animals should not be used by humans as food or for other purposes. The commonest philosophical
positions now, concerning how animals should be treated, are a blend of deontological and utilitarian approaches. Most people think that
extremes of poor welfare in animals are unacceptable and that those who keep animals should strive for good welfare. Hence animal
welfare science, which allows the evaluation of welfare, has developed rapidly.

The paper presents the method and findings of a Delphi expert survey to assess the impact of UK g... more The paper presents the method and findings of a Delphi expert survey to assess the impact of UK government farm animal welfare policy, farm assurance schemes and major food retailer specifications on the welfare of animals on farms. Two case-study livestock production systems are considered, dairy and cage egg production. The method identifies how well the various standards perform in terms of their effects on a number of key farm animal welfare variables, and provides estimates of the impact of the three types of standard on the welfare of animals on farms, taking account of producer compliance. The study highlights that there remains considerable scope for government policy, together with farm assurance schemes, to improve the welfare of farm animals by introducing standards that address key factors affecting animal welfare and by increasing compliance of livestock producers. There is a need for more comprehensive, regular and random surveys of on-farm welfare to monitor compliance with welfare standards (legislation and welfare codes) and the welfare of farm animals over time, and a need to collect farm data on the costs of compliance with standards.

Animal welfare has been more and more widely accepted as a scientific discipline during the last ... more Animal welfare has been more and more widely accepted as a scientific discipline during the last 25 years and our knowledge of animal functioning, including the extent to which they are sentient, has increased. One result of this has been that the public have demanded more legislation to protect animals and this has been passed in increasing numbers of countries but there are still many countries that do not have adequate laws protecting animals. One of the keys ways to improve animal welfare in the long term is for all those who use or have responsibility for animals to receive adequate education and training about the biological functioning of those animals, including ways in which their welfare might be made better or worse. To date, retailers' codes of practice have had the major effect on the welfare of farm animals although both laws and codes are needed. Further scientific studies of animal welfare are also needed but it is important to develop better methodologies for the enforcement of laws and codes and to provide adequate manpower to do this. Where the impact of different factors on animal health, or any other aspect of animal welfare, is being reviewed, careful analysis should involve not only risks but also benefits. Legislators are not just risk managers and a balance has to be struck between risks and benefits in every area of legislation.

The use of battery cages like those in use in much of the world will be prohibited from 1st Janua... more The use of battery cages like those in use in much of the world will be prohibited from 1st January 2012. At present, the viable alternatives to the battery cage are the best of the aviary systems. These sometimes require beak-trimming with current designs and genetic strains. It seems unlikely that enriched cages will compete economically if they provide for the needs of the hens. New genetic strains of hens which show less injurious pecking are needed.
Broilers: Firstly, that genetic selection of broilers should change so that serious welfare problems associated with leg disorders and ascites are substantially reduced. It was considered that this would necessitate selection for slower growth. Secondly, that stocking density should be limited to 30 kg per square m. in well-controlled environments and to lower stocking densities in less well-controlled environments. Environmental enrichment and measures to stimulate locomotion should be encouraged.

A system or procedure is sustainable if it is acceptable now and if its effects will be acceptabl... more A system or procedure is sustainable if it is acceptable now and if its effects will be acceptable in future, in particular in relation to resource availability, consequences of functioning and morality of action. There are several possible reasons why an animal production system, or other system which uses animals, might not be sustainable. However, the earliest reason is often one which impinges upon the general public's values in a way which the members of the public find unacceptable. Widely considered reasons for unsustainability are that a resource becomes depleted so much that it will become unavailable to the system, or that a product of the system accumulates to a degree which prevents the functioning of the system. Where there is depletion of a resource or accumulation of a product, the level at which this is unacceptable, and hence the point at which the system is unsustainable, is usually considerably lower than that at which the production system itself fails. Unacceptability is often due to effects on other systems. One major reason why animal usage systems may be regarded by the public as unacceptable, and hence become unsustainable without some modification, is that the product adversely affects human health. Another reason is their effect on the welfare of animals which are used in the system. There is a point at which the welfare of the animals is so poor that the majority of the public consider the system to be unacceptable. Hence animal welfare and public attitudes to it must be considered wherever the sustainability of an animal production or other animal use system is evaluated. No system or procedure is sustainable if a substantial proportion of people find aspects of it now, or of its consequences in the future, morally unacceptable. Animal welfare is one of those factors. My definition of welfare: "the state of the individual as regards its attempts to cope with its environment" includes feelings and health.

The scientific study of animal welfare has developed rapidly during the last fifteen years. The c... more The scientific study of animal welfare has developed rapidly during the last fifteen years. The concepts have been refined and a range of methods of assessment have been developed.Factors affecting welfare are described.

Animal welfare is a factor which affects public acceptability of animal production systems and he... more Animal welfare is a factor which affects public acceptability of animal production systems and hence sustainability. The scientific assessment of animal welfare, including animal health, has developed rapidly in recent years. Public concern abut the welfare of farm animals has also increased substantially. Legislation has an effect on animal welfare if adequately enforced. At present, the greatest effects on animal welfare are the standards set by purchasers of animal products, principally supermarkets and fast food chains. The actions of farmers and others involved in animal production also have major effects on animal welfare. These actions are affected by financial considerations but also by pressure from purchasers, legislation and the attitudes of family, friends, visitors, other farmers and the general public. Those who design and manufacture housing and equipment for farm animal management and those who breed animals for farm use can have substantial effects on animal welfare. Indeed, the consequences of breeding for high production efficiency have caused some of the most substantial of today's animal welfare problems. Legislation is needed in relation to animal breeding and some aspects of system manufacture. The World Trade Organisation should include poor welfare of animals as a criterion for legislation which allows refusal of imports.

Animal welfare is the subject of rapidly increasing concern in most countries in the world and th... more Animal welfare is the subject of rapidly increasing concern in most countries in the world and this concern is resulting in changes in the ways in which animal users keep and treat animals. The welfare of an individual is its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment. This includes the state of all coping systems, including those responding to pathology, various behavioural and physiological responses and processes in the brain. Welfare includes health and the extent of positive and negative feelings. The statement that welfare means being in harmony with nature is not a definition of welfare that is usable in welfare assessment, whilst the view that welfare includes the extent to which the animal might be in that state in nature is incorrect. It is misleading to suggest that this definition of welfare is a functional one rather than one that refers to suffering and other feelings because feelings are a part of animal functioning. Assessment of welfare must take account of the wide variety of coping systems and coping strategies used. A range of measures of behaviour, physiology, brain function, immune system function, damage, strengths of preferences, etc. is needed. The ease or difficulty of coping should be interpreted within the framework of the abilities and needs of the animal. Ethical decisions about animal welfare generally involve a deontological approach, specifying actions that should never be taken, and a consequentialist approach in which costs and benefits are balanced but neither of these approaches is adequate by itself.

In: Mammal Trapping - ̶ Wildlife Management, Animal Welfare & International Standards, G. Proulx, ed. 121-128., 2022

All vertebrate animals, including wild mammals considered to be pests or food and fur resources, ... more All vertebrate animals, including wild mammals considered to be pests or food and fur resources, have the capacity to feel pain, fear, and to suffer in other ways. If they are to be trapped, the impact on their welfare should be assessed scientifically and traps should be evaluated using criteria comparable with those used for all other animal treatment. The term humane has been used for many years in science and law in relation to the management and killing of domestic animals, and should be used in the same way in relation to capturing and killing wild animals. Snares do not operate humanely, either as restraining or as killing traps as the pain, fear, mortality and morbidity of animals caught in snares is high. Animals left in snares are susceptible to thirst, hunger, further injury and attack by predators, especially if in the trap for many hours or days. The magnitude of poor welfare when animals are caught in snares varies but is always high in comparison with all other regulated killing. Snares are inherently indiscriminate and commonly catch non-target animals, including protected species, so can have negative effects on conservation efforts. The regulation and monitoring of the use of snares, including the methods used to kill animals that are alive after snaring, is probably impossible. Some methods of pest control and other capture and killing of animals have such extreme effects on the welfare of the animals that, regardless of the potential benefits, their use is never justified. The use of snares is in this category.

Animals, 2021

We describe a wide range of unethical and unsustainable practices inherent to the trading and kee... more We describe a wide range of unethical and unsustainable practices inherent to the trading and keeping of pet birds. At present, biodiversity and wild bird populations are being greatly harmed and many individual birds have poor welfare. Wild-caught birds should not be sold to the public as pets, or to breeding establishments for several reasons, including because 75–90% of wild-caught birds die before the point of sale and taking birds from the wild has negative effects on biodiversity. The housing provided for pet birds should meet the needs of birds of that species and allow good welfare, for example there should be no small cages but aviaries with space for each bird to exer-cise adequately, and social birds should be kept in social groups. At present, inadequate housing of many pet birds results in stereotypies and other indicators of poor welfare in birds. Owners should have knowledge of how to provide good nutrition and minimize the risk of disease. Un-less these changes are made, keeping birds as pets should not be permitted. New laws are needed to prohibit taking birds from the wild and ensure captive pet birds in conditions that do meet their needs.

Proceedings of the Australian Veterinary Association Annual Conference, Perth, 79-80. St Leonards, NSW: Australian Veterinary Association., 2019

For most marine mammals, the demands and profits of tourism lead to reduced likelihood of killing... more For most marine mammals, the demands and profits of tourism lead to reduced likelihood of killing but tourist visits to zoos and aquaria, and some live animal watching, can have negative impacts on populations. The welfare of captive animals varies but is often poor. Performances for tourists can have positive or negative effects on welfare. Life expectancy is a welfare indicator and longevity of orcas in the wild is greater than in captivity. Median survivorship is a little longer in the wild. Wild cetaceans, seals, sea-otters and sirenians are an attraction for tourist boat trips. Boat approach for observation, chasing and swimming with the animals may cause avoidance behaviour, reduced time for foraging, social disruption, injury, increased disease or reduced breeding success: all indicators of poor welfare. However, well-controlled observation methods may cause no negative effects on the animals. Where biologically-based codes of practice are used, the net effect of tourism on wild animal welfare and populations can be positive.

Marine mammals include cetaceans, pinnipeds, sirenians, sea otters and polar bears, many of which... more Marine mammals include cetaceans, pinnipeds, sirenians, sea otters and polar bears, many of which are charismatic and popular species commonly kept under human care in zoos and aquaria. However, in comparison with their fully terrestrial counterparts their welfare has been less intensively studied, and their partial or full reliance on the aquatic environment leads to unique welfare challenges. In this paper we attempt to collate and review the research undertaken thus far on marine mammal welfare, and identify the most important gaps in knowledge. We use ‘best practice case studies’ to highlight examples of research promoting optimal welfare, include suggestions for future directions of research efforts, and make recommendations to strive for optimal
welfare, where it is currently lacking, above and beyond minimum legislation and guidelines. Our review of the
current literature shows that recently there have been positive forward strides in marine mammal welfare assessment, but fundamental research is still required to validate positive and negative indicators of welfare in
marine mammals. Across all marine mammals, more research is required on the dimensions and complexity of pools and land areas necessary for optimal welfare, and the impact of staff absence for most of the 24-h day, as standard working hours are usually between 0900 and 1700. Behavioural Processes, 156, 16-36. doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2017.09.011

Recently developed methods for the scientific assessment of animal welfare can be applied to pest... more Recently developed methods for the scientific assessment of animal welfare can be applied to pest species when considering management procedures. Vertebrate pests include mammals, birds and some fish. The management activities which may affect the welfare of the pest animals include: killing by various means, restraining in traps, translocating, excluding from an area, scaring, using a repellent, withdrawing resources, changing physiologically, marking for population monitoring purposes and providing an alternative resource. When an animal dies, welfare ceases and if consciousness is lost instantly and not regained before death, there is no welfare problem. However, when an animal dies slowly after being shot, trapped or poisoned in a way which causes pain, fear or distress, its welfare is very poor. Most infection with disease also has severe effects. Restraining traps may cause little ill effect but some, e.g. leghold traps, may cause pain and fear to the point where self-mutilation occurs. Some poor welfare may result from translocation, physical exclusion, marking and changing physiologically. In each case it should be assessed. An estimate of the magnitude of the problem for the animal is the area under the curve when the level of the poor welfare is plotted against its duration. Human attitudes to pests are often different from attitudes to other species but if we interact with these animals we have moral obligations towards them and we should consider their welfare in every management operation. Traps, poisons and other pest control methods should be licensed for use only if scientific studies of their effects on the welfare of target and some non-target species have been carried out. The results of such studies should be publicly accessible. Cost-benefit analysis is useful in pest control but some methods which result in very poor welfare should be banned in all circumstances.

Where animals are trapped, poisoned, hunted, or shot in order to kill them, the welfare may be on... more Where animals are trapped, poisoned, hunted, or shot in order to kill them,
the welfare may be only slightly affected before the animal dies, or it may be very poor indeed.
A conclusion from the rather widespread poor welfare in zoos is, firstly that the welfare of some animals is too poor in zoos to justify keeping them and secondly, that zoos should keep other animals only when the negative aspect of rather poor welfare is adequately counterbalanced by the positive value of zoos. In my opinion, the major value of zoos is in education. People who experience animals in zoos, especially in good conditions, are more likely to care about animals including their conservation. The major impact of zoos on conservation is via education. The direct impact of zoos on conservation in the wild is negligible for most species. In only a few species has the wild population been affected by zoo breeding. Breeding is better done in specialist places with no public access. A further positive aspect of zoos is that they have therapeutic benefits for people who feel better because of contact with the animals.

Early research on farmed mink was predominantly concerned with increased productivity; however, i... more Early research on farmed mink was predominantly concerned with increased productivity; however, in recent years there have been an increasing number of studies related to welfare. The biology offeral mink has also become better understood, and such knowledge can aid in the assessment of welfare on farms, or in the interpretation of problems related to captivity. This paper is a comprehensive review of research pertinent to the welfare of farmed American mink, Mustela vison, in relation to their housing and management. It indicates how housing conditions might be changed to improve welfare, and where our present knowledge is insufficient. Many significant aspects of mink behaviour in the wild, such as their lack of social contact, their tendency to travel long distances and use several den sites, and regular swimming and diving, are denied them in captivity. Farmed mink also show high levels of stereotypy, suggesting that their welfare is not good. Welfare may be improved by appropriate environmental enrichment and changes in the social environment of farmed mink. In general, studies aimed at improving housing conditions have been limited in scope and outlook.

Foxes have been kept in captivity in Europe for the purpose of fur production for 70-80 years. In... more Foxes have been kept in captivity in Europe for the purpose of fur production for 70-80 years. In comparison with the main domesticated animal species, this is a very recent intervention. This paper reviews available evidence concerning the welfare of farmed foxes in relation to housing and management. The bulk of the literature relates to early handling of cubs, with the intention of reducing their subsequent fear of humans, and to simple changes in the cage environment that may provide environmental enrichment for foxes. Fear of humans appears to be a significant and pervasive problem, and the barrenness of cages is also a cause for concern. The extent of abnormal behaviours and
reproductive failure, both indicative of quite severe welfare problems, is not sufficiently
documented. Some housing and management practices are less detrimental than others,
nonetheless, the evidence suggests that the welfare of farmed foxes is poor.

The welfare of animals is a major factor affecting the acceptability of human activities, and hen... more The welfare of animals is a major factor affecting the acceptability of human activities, and hence their sustainability, and whales are the subject of much concern because they are considered to be sentient animals. The scientific study of animal welfare has developed rapidly and now allows evaluation of the effects on whale welfare of disturbance by boats, harpoon entry, pulling whales to a boat, capture procedures, the point of unconsciousness and consequences for animals that escape. Useful data are now being collected on some aspects but recent evidence shows that, on average, during the capture and killing of whales, there is a high magnitude of poor welfare and the procedure is not humane.

Most people consider that we have moral obligations to other people, to animals of other species ... more Most people consider that we have moral obligations to other people, to animals of other species and to ensuring the sustainability of production systems. A system or procedure is sustainable if it is acceptable now and if its expected future effects are acceptable, in particular in relation to resource availability, consequences of functioning and morality of action. Animal welfare affects public acceptability of animal usage systems and hence sustainability. The concept of animal product quality now includes: the health of human consumers, the welfare of animals used, environmental impact including conservation and pollution, the efficiency of usage of world food resources, the use of genetically modified organisms, ensuring fair payment for poor producers, and preserving rural communities. Consumers may refuse to buy unacceptable products and may pressurise retail companies and governments to ensure that they are not sold. Hence there must be codes or laws and inspection using, for example, animal-based welfare-outcome indicators. EFSA reports, which are commissioned before all changes in E.U. animal welfare legislation, have pioneered precise review of animal welfare issues and rigorous analysis of risks of poor welfare and benefits to good welfare. The best general laws on animal welfare include a requirement for a duty of care for the animals. Welfare is now discussed in the International Whaling Commission. The W.T.O. has rejected a challenge to the E.U. legislation that banned seal products because of inhumane killing procedures, the first time that it has accepted animal welfare as an aspect of public morality that can be grounds for trade restriction.

Biological Reviews, 2021

The crisis generated by the emergence and pandemic spread of COVID-19 has thrown into the global ... more The crisis generated by the emergence and pandemic spread of COVID-19 has thrown into the global spotlight the dangers associated with novel diseases, as well as the key role of animals, especially wild animals, as potential sources of pathogens to humans. There is a widespread demand for a new relationship with wild and domestic animals, including suggested bans on hunting, wildlife trade, wet markets or consumption of wild animals. However, such policies risk ignoring essential elements of the problem as well as alienating and increasing hardship for local

Animal Sentience, 2020

Humans share their biology with other animals and in each of their actions should consider the co... more Humans share their biology with other animals and in each of their actions should consider the consequences for all life. A series of measures can be taken by governments and individuals that would minimise inter-specific transfer of pathogens from wildlife and reduce the development of antimicrobial resistance.

Veterinary Record, 1987

The world expects veterinary knowledge to encompass all aspects of the lives of animals. These in... more The world expects veterinary knowledge to encompass all aspects of the lives of animals. These include their management and welfare, not just their diseases. Modern research into behaviour is relevant to practical veterinary work, such as animal handling and disease diagnosis, and also to general management and welfare. Hence, all veterinary courses should include instruction in behaviour and those involved in veterinary work should be aware of new developments in the subject.

Broom, D.M. and Corke, M.J. 2002. Effects of disease on farm animal welfare. Acta Veterinaria Brn... more Broom, D.M. and Corke, M.J. 2002. Effects of disease on farm animal welfare. Acta Veterinaria Brno, 71, 133-136. Abstract Health is an important part of welfare and whenever an animal is diseased, welfare is poorer than when there is no disease. This point is often not recognised adequately by those studying animal welfare. Also, the full extent of the effects of clinically diagnosed disease on the welfare of the animal is seldom quantified. This quantification of the extent of poor welfare during disease is important for farm animals because of our general obligations to the animals. In order to fully evaluate the impact of housing conditions and management procedures on the animals and then decide what is acceptable, disease must be taken into account. One example of clinical disease conditions which are very significant causes of poor welfare concerns leg disorders such as tibial dyschondroplasia and femoral head necrosis in broiler chickens. A second example is the dairy cow in which the major welfare problems result from the various leg disorders and mastitis. A third example, in which there has been some quantification of effects on welfare, is sheep scab. For farm animals, other animals which we use, and for humans the evaluation of the extent of poor welfare during clinical disease is a major research area which needs to be developed.

It is concluded that there are several routes by which poor welfare results in an increase in dis... more It is concluded that there are several routes by which poor welfare results in an increase in disease. The pathophysiology of states typified by behavioural abnormalities and emergency physiological responses is a subject which is insufficiently investigated.

Behaviour is an important way of adapting to disease for individuals and selective pressures resu... more Behaviour is an important way of adapting to disease for individuals and selective pressures resulting from disease have had major consequences for the evolution of behaviour. Behaviour, adrenal and other physiological responses, immunological responses and brain activity all help in coping with disease. Health is an important part of welfare and any pathology implies some degree of poor welfare. Sickness behaviour and physiology are generally adaptive, involve interactions with the immune system and are partly mediated by cytokines. Since, firstly, an understanding of some behaviour requires knowledge of disease and, secondly, responses to disease and studies of brain and behaviour are helping to increase understanding of systems for combating disease, interdisciplinary cooperation is needed for the development of these areas of science.

Proceedings of the Animal Nutrition Conference of Canada, Saskatoon, 87-98. , 2022

World economics has been changing. 'Push production', driven by producers, is being replaced by '... more World economics has been changing. 'Push production', driven by producers, is being replaced by 'pull production', driven by consumers who demand sustainable systems and products and think that people should be less human-centred. A system or procedure is sustainable if it is acceptable now and if its expected future effects are acceptable, in particular in relation to resource availability, consequences of functioning and morality of action.There are many components of sustainability. A food production system might be unsustainable because of inefficient usage of world food resources; adverse effects on human welfare, including health; poor welfare of production animals or other animals; harmful environmental effects, such as greenhouse gas production, low biodiversity or insufficient conservation; unacceptable genetic modification; not being “fair trade”, in that producers in poor countries are not properly rewarded; or damage to rural communities. A scoring method
based on scientific information has been developed and shows that the best beef production systems are much more sustainable than the worst.
In future, consumers choosing efficient usage of world resources and avoiding causing harms will change food production. Likely changes include: increased plant food consumption; avoidance of some plant production methods; increased use of animals consuming leaves; greater use of plants producing high protein leaves; more mixed herb, shrub, and tree systems; less feeding of grain to farmed animals; more use of human food waste to feed farmed animals after treatment to avoid disease; more use of herbivorous fish, insects and mammals; and more cell-cultured meat.

Animal, 2022

This study will help the agriculture industry to change systems and practices before consumers fo... more This study will help the agriculture industry to change systems and practices before consumers force even more radical change. Consumers demand that all components of the sustainability of food production be considered. All components can be scored, and the scores are used to compare details of production systems and different protein sources. Reduction in greenhouse gas output is important but, for best resource use, the farming of ruminants and other leaf-eating animals has advantages over all grainfeeding to farmed animals. Three-level production from trees and shrubs with high leaf protein content can be very productive and sustainable in many conditions.

Veterinarski Arhiv, 2022

What should we change in the future? As a consequence of the one health, one welfare and one biol... more What should we change in the future? As a consequence of the one health, one welfare and one biology concepts, for most of our decisions we should be less human-centred if we want our species and other species to survive. Humans are less special than many people think. People consider that we have moral obligations to the animals that we use and to the sustainability of systems. A system or procedure is sustainable if it is acceptable now and if its expected future effects are acceptable, in particular in relation to resource availability, the consequences of functioning and morality of action. Consumers may refuse to buy unacceptable products and pressurise retail companies and governments to ensure that they are not sold. Poor welfare of people, poor welfare of other animals, genetic modification, or harmful environmental effects may make systems unsustainable. Most of the public now think of farm and companion animals as sentient beings and have concerns about their welfare. There are many components of sustainability and all should be evaluated and scored. Examples of attempts to do this are life cycle analysis and evaluation of externalities for agricultural or other products. Some topics considered include: straw use; which animals to keep as pets; stray dogs; free-roaming cats; feedlots; silvopastoral systems; free-range cattle; preserving land for hunting; land-sparing or landsharing; zoos and conservation; and cell-culture of meat.

Biological Reviews, 2021

A comprehensive approach to decisions about the use of land and other world resources, taking ful... more A comprehensive approach to decisions about the use of land and other world resources, taking full account of biological and other scientific information, is crucial for good decisions to be made now and in future. The sustainability of systems for producing food and other products is sometimes assessed using too narrow a range of component factors. A production system might be unsustainable because of adverse effects on a wide range of aspects of human welfare, animal welfare, or the environment. All factors should be included in sustainability evaluation, otherwise products or actions might be avoided without adequate consideration of key factors or of the diversity of production systems. A scoring method that is based on scientific information and potentially of general relevance is presented here, using beef production as a example with a review of each of its sustainability components. This includes an overall combined score and specific factors that make the system unacceptable for some consumers. The results show that, in this example, the sustainability of the best systems is very much better than that of the worst systems. By taking account of scores for a wide range of components of sustainability in comparing beef-production systems, better quality policies about beef use can be formulated than when statements referring only to one system are considered. The least sustainable beef-production systems are extensive grazing that causes land degradation and the use of feedlots or indoor housing with grain feeding. Semiintensive silvopastoral systems are the most sustainable beef-production systems, and well-managed pasture-fed beef from areas where crop production is uneconomic is also sustainable. This simple, scientifically based scoring system could be modified to use positive as well as negative scores and is of value for policy makers, researchers, producers, organisations aiming to improve sustainability, and the general public.

Animals, 2021

We describe a wide range of unethical and unsustainable practices inherent to the trading and kee... more We describe a wide range of unethical and unsustainable practices inherent to the trading and keeping of pet birds. At present, biodiversity and wild bird populations are being greatly harmed and many individual birds have poor welfare. Wild-caught birds should not be sold to the public as pets, or to breeding establishments for several reasons, including because 75–90% of wild-caught birds die before the point of sale and taking birds from the wild has negative effects on biodiversity. The housing provided for pet birds should meet the needs of birds of that species and allow good welfare, for example there should be no small cages but aviaries with space for each bird to exercise adequately, and social birds should be kept in social groups. At present, in-adequate housing of many pet birds results in stereotypies and other indicators of poor welfare in birds. Owners should have knowledge of how to provide good nutrition and minimize the risk of disease. Unless these changes are made, keeping birds as pets should not be permitted. New laws are needed to prohibit taking birds from the wild and ensure captive pet birds in conditions that do meet their needs.

Journal of Animal Behaviour and Biometeorology, 2020

This is a literature review of the effects of humans ́ relationships with farm animals on animal ... more This is a literature review of the effects of humans ́ relationships with farm animals on animal productivity and welfare, including the following topics: definition of the concept and description of different tests that have been developed to measure human-animal relationship (HAR). Temperament and tameness, which have been considered as farm animal characteristics that are important in HAR, as are stockperson attitudes. Some international farm animal welfare protocols are also described, together with negative and positive stimuli that affect farm animal welfare and productivity. In addition to some factors affecting the quality of HAR. We conclude that even with improved precision farming and automation: a) a good HAR is still fundamental to improve farm animal welfare with associated health and production benefits and b) with the numerous tests assessing fear of humans, many are not commercially applicable.

Animals

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 2019

Systems for the production of food, or other products for human use, should be sustainable. This ... more Systems for the production of food, or other products for human use, should be sustainable. This means that the system should be acceptable now and its expected future effects should be acceptable, in particular in relation to resource availability, consequences of functioning and morality of action. However, there are many components of sustainability. People who consider only one aspect may not advocate the best solution. If the focus is entirely on: animal welfare, preservation of rare wildlife species, maximising local biodiversity or minimising greenhouse gas, production may cause other harms. When an agricultural or other product is considered, life cycle analysis of the product takes account of every contributory factor. Every externality of the system should be evaluated and the value of each balanced.

Some actions that improve animal welfare may also have positive environmental effects and each aspect can be measured. If straw from cereal production is burned, carbon dioxide is released but if it is used as bedding or for manipulation welfare is improved and the greenhouse gas effect is reduced. Taking wild animals to keep as pets leads to poor welfare and wild populations are reduced. Stray dogs have a negative impact on the populations and welfare of some wild animals and dog welfare is often poor because of disease and malnutrition so humanely killing the dogs can prevent poor welfare and benefit conservation. The land-sparing argument, encouraging intensive animal production so more land is available for nature reserves, would favour feedlots for beef production but the welfare of the cattle in feedlots is often poor and water usage is high. However, semi-intensive silvopastoral systems are also very efficient. The presence of shrubs and trees greatly increases biodiversity, reduces greenhouse gas production per unit of production, reduces conserved water usage and improves welfare.

Conserving land for hunting wild animals increases biodiversity but the hunting usually causes poor welfare. Where endangered species cannot adapt well to captive conditions, captive breeding might preserve the species but the welfare of the animals is poor. When a system is being evaluated, each of the many components of sustainability should be measured precisely: welfare, biodiversity, worker satisfaction, water use, greenhouse gas production and harmful accumulation of pollutants like nitrogen and phosphorus. Decision-making may involve developing units for comparison of each positive and negative consequence or considering any negative that is so great that no counter-balancing would ever be acceptable to the public.

. In Schmid O., Ghotge N., Johnson M., Atkinson C., Chander M., (Eds.) Role of Livestock in Sustainable Agriculture. Proceedings of the IAHA Pre-Conference on Animal Husbandry, 19th Organic World Congress, India, 20-23. , 2017

In relation to animal production throughout the world, there will be increasing demand from consu... more In relation to animal production throughout the world, there will be increasing demand from consumers for the avoidance of adverse effects on human welfare, animal welfare and the environment. In some cases, maintaining the viability of human communities is also considered to be important. A system or procedure is sustainable if it is acceptable now and if its expected future effects are acceptable, in particular in relation to resource availability, consequences of functioning and morality of action. What might make any animal usage system unsustainable? The system might involve depletion of resources such that a resource becomes unavailable, or a product of the system might accumulate to a degree that prevents the functioning of the system. However, any effect which the general public find unacceptable makes a system unsustainable. A production system might be unsustainable because of: inefficient usage of world food resources; adverse effects on human health and human welfare in general; poor welfare of animals; harmful environmental effects such as low biodiversity or insufficient conservation; unacceptable genetic modification; not being “fair trade” in that producers in poor countries are not properly rewarded; or damage to rural communities. Consumers might judge, because of any of these inadequacies, that the quality of the product is poor.
Animal welfare is a component of sustainability and good quality of product. The welfare of an individual is its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment. Animal welfare has been developing rapidly as a scientific discipline. Three-level plant production, including pasture and nitrogen-fixing shrubs and trees with edible leaves are an example of a silvopastoral system. The production of leaves and other material that can be eaten by the animals is much greater than can be achieved by pasture-only systems. Tree leaves are of great value during dry periods when pasture is not productive. Results in tropical and sub-tropical areas show that in semi-intensive three-level silvopastoral systems, production of cattle and other animals can be better, soil structure and water-holding capacity much improved, biodiversity and predators of disease-causing animals much increased and animal disease reduced. The increase in food, water, habitat choice, shade, and quality of social interactions, and the reduction in disease, result in substantial improvements in animal welfare. Industry should be proactive and rapidly change policies relating to animal welfare and other aspects of sustainability.

In: The Key Role of Animal Welfare Science in the Development of Green Agriculture, Jingxiang Pan and Siyan Li (eds), 8-21.Changchun: Jilin Publ. ISBN 978-7-5578-5109-5, 2018

World attitudes and socioeconomic trends Concepts referring to humans and other animals Regulatio... more World attitudes and socioeconomic trends
Concepts referring to humans and other animals
Regulation and sentience
EU legislation and other policies affecting animal welfare
Scientific information used in formulation of laws
The World Trade Organisation dispute about trade in seal products
Actions on animal welfare by other world organisations

Proceedings of the Australian Veterinary Association Annual Conference, Perth, 75-76. St Leonards, NSW: Australian Veterinary Association., 2019

A system or procedure is sustainable if it is acceptable now and if its expected future effects a... more A system or procedure is sustainable if it is acceptable now and if its expected future effects are acceptable, in particular in relation to resource availability, consequences of functioning and morality of action. Consumers now demand that systems used in all production and other activities be sustainable. Animal usage systems are most often considered unsustainable because of poor welfare of people, poor welfare of other animals, genetic modification, or harmful environmental effects. Most of the public now think of farm and companion animals as sentient beings and have concerns about their welfare. Data on water use, land use and animal welfare during beef production are presented. New sustainable systems, such as semi-intensive silvopastoral systems using trees, shrubs and pasture plants, are needed for the future. Sustainable fish production, insect production and meat cell culture should be developed.

Proceedings of the Australian Veterinary Association Annual Conference, Perth, 73-74. St Leonards, NSW: Australian Veterinary Association., 2019

Our history presents numerous examples of humans being used for entertainment, from Roman gladiat... more Our history presents numerous examples of humans being used for entertainment, from Roman gladiators fighting to the ‘freak shows’ of individuals with physical disabilities. Whilst these are now considered socially unacceptable, non-human animals continue to be used for entertainment in similar contexts. This double standard raises a number of ethical questions. For those who read that we are given dominion over the world, who are “we” and what should dominion mean? Is it right to focus greatly on humans when terms like health and welfare mean exactly the same for humans and other animals? Which humans and which other animals are sentient where sentience means having the capacity to have feelings. Sentience requires a level of sensory analysis, awareness and cognitive ability. The concept of welfare applies to all animals but not to plants or inanimate objects. Most people today consider that their moral obligations extend to many animal species, especially those that are sentient.

Compendio de Trabajos del 7º Simposio Internacional de Bienestar Animal y 2º de Bioética y Etología Animal, 58-61. Universidad Veracruzana. ISBN: 978-84-17523-41-1, 2018

Compendio de Trabajos del 7º Simposio Internacional de Bienestar Animal y 2º de Bioética y Etología Animal, 53-57. Universidad Veracruzana. ISBN: 978-84-17523-41-1., 2018

Existe una urgente necesidad por sistemas de producción animal sustentables. Un sistema o procedi... more Existe una urgente necesidad por sistemas de producción animal sustentables. Un sistema o procedimiento es sustentable si es aceptable en la actualidad y si sus efectos futuros espera- dos son aceptables, en particular con relación a la disponibilidad de recursos, consecuencias de su funcionamiento, y moralidad de acción. ¿Qué podría hacer no sustentable a cualquier sistema que emplee animales? El sistema podría involucrar disminución de los recursos de forma que un recurso se vuelva no disponible o que un producto del sistema se pueda acu- mular a tal grado que evite el funcionamiento del sistema. Sin embargo, cualquier efecto que el público en general considere como inaceptable hace a un sistema no sustentable y algu- nos de estos efectos se discuten en este documento. El bienestar animal es un componente de la sustentabilidad y de la calidad de los productos. Al igual que la salud, bienestar signi- fica exactamente lo mismo para humanos y no humanos. Los conceptos de una salud y un bienestar son importantes. Los sistemas silvopastoriles semi-intensivos pueden mejorar el uso de los recursos mundiales, la economía de las granjas, el ambiente y el bienestar animal.

In: D'Silva, J. and McKenna, C. (eds) Farming, Food and Nature: respecting animals, people and the environment, 93-100. London and New York: Earthscan, Routledge., 2018

There is increasing public demand in all countries for sustainable plant and animal production sy... more There is increasing public demand in all countries for sustainable plant and animal production systems. A system or procedure is sustainable if it is acceptable now and if its expected future effects are acceptable, in particular in relation to resource availability, consequences of functioning and morality of action. When purchasing food, many people now consider efficiency of usage of world food resources, human welfare, animal welfare, biodiversity and conservation, genetic modification, fair trade and continuity of rural communities. The quality of the product is more and more frequently judged to be poor if the production method is unacceptable. In order to use resources efficiently, every person should eat more plant material than animal material and should not waste food. Where the killing of animals is a concern, there should be consideration of the many animals killed in the course of plant production, probably more than in production of some herbivorous animals. Animal production should focus on herbivorous animals that eat foods that humans cannot eat. Much of the earth can be used for herbivore production but is unsuitable for producing plants that humans can eat. Animal welfare is a major factor in the sustainability of food production systems and in food quality. The most important animal welfare problems all concern farmed animals: broiler chicken welfare, dairy cow welfare, laying hen welfare, pig welfare, and the welfare of farmed fish. There is much scientific evidence about animal welfare and several other aspects of sustainability. New semi-intensive silvopastoral systems are being developed in tropical and sub-tropical countries in which pasture is combined with shrubs and trees with protein-rich edible leaves. Plant and animal production are greater than in pasture-only systems, biodiversity is much increased, animal disease is reduced, and animal welfare improved.

Reference Module in Food Science. Elsevier, pp. 1–4. doi: , 2018

Current and future attitudes of the public to sustainability and animal welfare. Impact on politi... more Current and future attitudes of the public to sustainability and animal welfare. Impact on politicians, laws, standards, codes of practice.

Animals, 2019

Simple Summary: Consumers increasingly demand sustainable food production, including using world ... more Simple Summary: Consumers increasingly demand sustainable food production, including using world resources eciently, avoiding environmental damage and ensuring good welfare of animals. Reports have suggested that beef production is costly in relation to world resource use and greenhouse gas production, so some consumers avoid beef. However, many reports refer mainly to feedlot systems. Ruminants can eat leaves that humans cannot eat, so if they are not fed grain, systems can be sustainable and valuable. This paper presents an analysis of the production of beef comparing all aspects of the use of land and conserved water for four production systems. It is suggested that conserved water use is a useful measure. Land use was the highest in extensive unmodified pasture systems, especially if the land became degraded. Less land was used in both feedlot and fertilised pasture systems and much less in semi-intensive silvopastoral systems. Conserved water use was the highest in feedlot systems, partly because of the grain fed to the cattle, lower in pasture systems and lowest in semi-intensive silvopastoral systems. This research indicates that, when beef production systems are being selected or consumers are deciding which beef to buy, extensive systems that degrade the land should be avoided, and well-managed extensive systems, especially semi-intensive silvopastoral systems, should be preferred to feedlot systems. Abstract: This analysis, using published data, compared all land and conserved water use in four beef production systems. A widespread feedlot system and fertilised irrigated pasture systems used similar amounts of land. However, extensive unmodified pasture systems used three times more land, and semi-intensive silvopastoral systems used four times less land, so the highest use was 13 times the lowest. The amount of conserved water used was 64% higher in feedlots with relatively intensive rearing systems than in fertilised irrigated pasture; in extensive unmodified pasture systems, it was 38% and in semi-intensive silvopastoral systems, it was 21% of the fertilised irrigated pasture value, so the highest use was eight times the lowest. If there was no irrigation of pasture or of plants used for cattle feed, the feedlot water use was 12% higher than the fertilised pasture use and 57% higher than that in semi-intensive silvopastoral systems. These large e↵ects of systems on resource use indicate the need to consider all systems when referring to the impact of beef or other products on the global environment. Whilst the use of animals as human food should be reduced, herbivorous animals that consume food that humans cannot eat and are kept using sustainable systems are important for the future use of world resources.

In Scientific Perspectives to Farm Animal Welfare, (in Chinese) Ed. D.Cao, and G. Xianhong, 3-15. Beijing: China Agricultural University Press., 2018

Consumers now demand that systems used in all production and other activities be sustainable. If ... more Consumers now demand that systems used in all production and other activities be sustainable. If they are not, retail companies, production companies and countries that do not produce good quality, sustainable products are likely to be boycotted and hence forced to change. Animal usage systems are most often considered unsustainable because of poor welfare of people, poor welfare of other animals, genetic modification, or harmful environmental effects. Most of the public now think of farm and companion animals as sentient beings and have concerns about their welfare. The welfare of an individual is its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment. This refers to all coping systems and includes health and feelings such as pain. Both good and poor welfare can be assessed using a wide variety of behavioural, physiological, clinical, brain function and other measures. The concepts of “one health” and “one welfare” emphasise that most of the mechanisms involved and measures to be used in evaluation are the same in humans and non-humans. Welfare outcome indicators can be used by veterinary and other inspectors, as well as by those who use animals. New sustainable systems, such as semi-intensive silvopastoral systems, are needed for the future. (Main text in Chinese)

How we manage farming and food systems to meet rising demand is pivotal to the future of biodiver... more How we manage farming and food systems to meet rising demand is pivotal to the future of biodiversity. Extensive field data
suggest that impacts on wild populations would be greatly reduced through boosting yields on existing farmland so as to spare
remaining natural habitats. High-yield farming raises other concerns because expressed per unit area it can generate high
levels of externalities such as greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient losses. However, such metrics underestimate the overall
impacts of lower-yield systems. Here we develop a framework that instead compares externality and land costs per unit production.
We apply this framework to diverse data sets that describe the externalities of four major farm sectors and reveal that,
rather than involving trade-offs, the externality and land costs of alternative production systems can covary positively: per unit
production, land-efficient systems often produce lower externalities. For greenhouse gas emissions, these associations become
more strongly positive once forgone sequestration is included. Our conclusions are limited: remarkably few studies report
externalities alongside yields; many important externalities and farming systems are inadequately measured; and realizing the
environmental benefits of high-yield systems typically requires additional measures to limit farmland expansion. Nevertheless,
our results suggest that trade-offs among key cost metrics are not as ubiquitous as sometimes perceived.

There is an urgent need for sustainable animal production systems. A system or procedure is susta... more There is an urgent need for sustainable animal production systems. A system or procedure is sustainable if it is acceptable now and if its expected future effects are acceptable, in particular in relation to resource availability, consequences of functioning and morality of action. What might make any animal usage system unsustainable? The system might involve depletion of resources such that a resource becomes unavailable, or a product of the system might accumulate to a degree that prevents the functioning of the system. However, any effect which the general public find unacceptable makes a system unsustainable. A production system might be unsustainable because of: inefficient usage of world food resources; adverse effects on human health; poor welfare of animals; harmful environmental effects such as low biodiversity or insufficient conservation; unacceptable genetic modification; not being “fair trade” in that producers in poor countries are not properly rewarded; or damage to rural communities. Consumers might judge, because of any of these inadequacies, that the quality of the product is poor. Animal welfare is a component of sustainability and good quality of product. Three-level plant production, including pasture, shrubs with edible leaves and trees that may also have edible leaves are an example of a silvopastoral system. The production of leaves and other material that can be eaten by the animals is much greater than can be achieved by pasture-only systems. Results presented from tropical and sub-tropical studies show that production of cattle and other animals can be better, biodiversity much increased, animal disease reduced, and animal welfare improved in three-level silvopastoral systems.
Rev. Bras. Zootec., 46, 683-688. doi.org/10.1590/S1806-92902017000800009

The many studies published recently on cognition, welfare assessment and practical management of ... more The many studies published recently on cognition, welfare assessment and practical management of companion animals inform us about what we can and should do to improve welfare. Hence better advice can be offered on aspects of training, living conditions, problem situations and genetic selection. Evidence concerning the impact of dogs and cats on wildlife and the unsuitability of many animals as pets may help to prevent some problems.

Both animal welfare science and anthrozoology have active researchers from several different acad... more Both animal welfare science and anthrozoology have active researchers from several different academic disciplines. Some started in animal behaviour research, as I did, whilst others have come from psychology, physiology, practical veterinary or medical work, social science etc. All have been influenced by the writings of philosophers about attitudes to animals and most analyse both data and ideas rigorously. For many people, such as the members of the research group that I started in Cambridge Veterinary School in 1986, the motivation for doing such work has been to understand the biology better and to be able to help to improve the welfare of animals and the benefits that people get from interactions with companion animals. During the last 24 years there has been a great increase in public interest in the area. Our Centre for Animal Welfare and Anthrozoology has been much in demand from students and from researchers around the world for lectures and courses. Animals have always had good or poor welfare and there have always been people who cared for and considered the welfare of animals but animal welfare as a scientific discipline has emerged in the last thirty years. It now flourishes because of public concern. Animal health has been studied for much longer and laws protecting animals have existed in Europe for two hundred years. Health is an important part of the wider concept of welfare and concerns how well individuals cope with pathology while welfare refers to coping with the environment as a whole. The change that started to occur in the 1980s was from a focus on human actions to protect animals, to the animals themselves as individuals, their biological functioning and how to provide for their needs. Consideration of this functioning had to include the brain of animals and how it controls behaviour, physiology and defences against disease. Animals have a range of needs and those of each species can be studied in carefully controlled investigations. The first step in any report, legislation or code of practice is to list the needs of the animals involved. Hence the concept of needs is included in modern legislation and has replaced the earlier and less precise list of freedoms that animals should have.

The concepts of welfare, need, stress, health, etc. are defined and the relationships amongst the... more The concepts of welfare, need, stress, health, etc. are defined and the relationships amongst these are discussed. Welfare is a broad term, of which health and feelings are important parts. As a consequence of public demand for information and actions about welfare, there has been rapid development in recent years in the scientific assessment of animal welfare. Some of this work has been done in animal shelters or with working and other companion animals. Measures include abnormal behaviour, physiology, immune system function and injury level. Where welfare is poor, the best overall assessment of welfare is a function of the severity of effect on the individual and the duration of that effect. Efforts should be made to evaluate how good welfare is as well as the extent of any poor welfare. This is facilitated by evaluating what is important to animals and modern microeconomic theory can help in doing this. There is a need for effective monitoring policies when companion animals are used in order that codes of practice and laws can be formulated.

Veterinary Record, 2009

We should like to bring to the attention of the veterinary profession an epidemiological study, r... more We should like to bring to the attention of the veterinary profession an epidemiological study, recently undertaken in Europe, which examined the trade in long-distance transport of horses for slaughter for human consumption. Anecdotal evidence collected by a variety of ...

Equine Veterinary Journal, 2011

Anecdotal evidence collected by a variety of organisations has highlighted poor welfare in horses... more Anecdotal evidence collected by a variety of organisations has highlighted poor welfare in horses transported long distances to slaughter within the European Union. To investigate welfare of horses being transported long distances within the EU to slaughter. Data on transported horses were recorded at 2 assembly centres in Romania and at 4 abattoirs in Italy over an 8 month period in 2008. A total of 1519 horses in 64 separate shipments were observed in Romania prior to transport of which 212 horses were deemed unfit for transport and only 3 shipments (5%) complied with Council Regulation (EC) no. 1/2005 with respect to both horse and vehicle compliance. The destination most commonly stated for the horses from these assembly centres was Italy. A total of 1271 horses in 63 separate shipments were observed after transport in Italy, of which 86 horses in 4 shipments had also been observed prior to transport in Romania. The majority of the horses observed at these abattoirs originated from Poland (51%) and Romania (44%). On arrival in Italy at the time of unloading, 471 of 1271 horses (37%) were deemed unfit for transport in accordance with Council Regulation (EC) no. 1/2005 and none of the shipments were compliant with respect to both vehicle and horse requirements. An average of 6 horses per shipment (28% of each shipment) had at least one acute injury on arrival in Italy. A significantly higher prevalence of severe injuries and lameness was found in animals on arrival In Italy compared with animals leaving Romania. Horses examined on arrival in Italy were twice as likely to have 1-3 acute contusions or excoriations as horses examined in Romania. There was also a 2-fold increase in the number of animals deemed unfit for transport. This study has identified evidence of poor welfare in horses being transported long distances to slaughter, including severe lameness and injuries, and a high level of noncompliance with Council Regulation (EC) no. 1/2005 on the Protection of Animals during Transport.

Reasons for performing study: Anecdotal evidence collected by a variety of organisations has high... more Reasons for performing study: Anecdotal evidence collected by a variety of organisations has highlighted poor welfare in horses transported long distances to slaughter within the European Union. Objective: To investigate welfare of horses being transported long distances within the EU to slaughter. Methods: Data on transported horses were recorded at 2 assembly centres in Romania and at 4 abattoirs in Italy over an 8 month period in 2008. Results: A total of 1519 horses in 64 separate shipments were observed in Romania prior to transport of which 212 horses were deemed unfit for transport and only 3 shipments (5%) complied with Council Regulation (EC) no. 1/2005 with respect to both horse and vehicle compliance. The destination most commonly stated for the horses from these assembly centres was Italy. A total of 1271 horses in 63 separate shipments were observed after transport in Italy, of which 86 horses in 4 shipments had also been observed prior to transport in Romania. The majority of the horses

In Are we Pushing Animals to their Biological Limits? Eds T. Grandin and M. Whiting, 172-180. Wallingford: CABI., 2018

1. Moral issues associated with biotechnology will be considered by the public and should be take... more 1. Moral issues associated with biotechnology will be considered by the public and
should be taken into account at an early stage in any biotechnology research.
2. One of the possible consequences of the use of GM products or GM animals is on
animal welfare. Many different systems for coping with the environment should be
considered when assessing welfare. These systems interact, and health is an important
part of welfare in such assessments.
3. A checklist for animal welfare should take account of current scientific knowledge
about assessing animal welfare and should be further developed for general cage-side
use in the case of GM animals.
4. When sold, every GM product for use with animals should have details of properly
tested effects on animal welfare.

Animal welfare can be assessed in a precise way using measures of several kinds of abnormal behav... more Animal welfare can be assessed in a precise way using measures of several kinds of abnormal behaviour, aversion, physiological responses including adrenal and opioid activity, immunosuppression, opioid activity, disease incidence, weight gain, reproductive success and life expectancy. Welfare may be affected in various ways in transgenic animals and animals treated with biotechnology products. In order to assess this, carefully controlled studies using a wide range of welfare indicators are needed. These should be carried out for at least the total farm life of a breeding animal and for at least two generations. No such comprehensive studies of either category of animals have been reported in the scientific literature to date although some measures of the effects of bovine somatrophin have been made and are described. Neither the use of recombinant DNA products nor the keeping of transgenic animals should be permitted on commercial farms until it is clear that the welfare of these animals is not adversely affected in comparison with that of animals which do not have the products administered to them or which are not produced by transgenic procedures.

In: Livestock Handling and Transport, 5th edn. T. Grandin ed. Chapter 2, 12-29. Wallingford UK and Boston USA: CABI. ISBN 9781786399151., 2019

All farmed animals are regarded as sentient beings so their welfare is a matter of much public co... more All farmed animals are regarded as sentient beings so their welfare is a matter of much public concern. Positive and negative aspects of the welfare of animals during transport should be assessed using a range of behavioural, physiological and carcass quality measures. Health is an important part of welfare so the extent of any disease, injury or mortality resulting from, or exacerbated by, transport should be measured. Many of the indicators of welfare are measures of stress, involving long-term adverse effects, or indicators of pain, fear or other feelings. Some welfare assessment methods are research tools whilst others are welfare outcome indicators that can be used by a veterinary or other inspector.

International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine, 2018

A B S T R A C T Pre-loading handling and conditions of transport are related to welfare, disease ... more A B S T R A C T Pre-loading handling and conditions of transport are related to welfare, disease risk and product quality of production animals. These steps continue to be one of the major animal management problems in Brazil. This study evaluated the effects of different types of pre-loading handling and road transport times on the haema-tological and biochemical traits of cattle. Eighteen male cattle were submitted to three travel times (24, 48 and 72 h) in a truck soon after load using different types of pre-loading handling: traditional (rough handling), training (gentle handling) and use of flags to movement cattle. Haematological traits, blood biochemical measures as well as blood and faecal cortisol were analysed in order to assess animal welfare and physiological status. The traditional management showed to be more stressful, also had animals with a greater number of neutrophils and lower numbers of lymphocytes than handling with flags, showing that animals submitted to more stressful situations can have compromised immune system. Serum aspartate aminotransferase concentrations were within the reference levels and when taken together with increased creatine kinase patterns observed indicate muscle damage in traditional management. Decrease in glucose concentrations over time from traditional management to flag management was observed, while fructosamine was increased in traditional management with 72 h of travel. When taken together, all reported factors, immune, enzymatic, energetic and hormonal, indicate that the quality of pre-loading handling and time of transport were determinant for animal welfare, its homeostatic balance and sanitary conditions.
Sena Brunel, H.S., Dallago, B.S.L., Bezerra de Almeida, A.M., Zorzan de Assis, A., Calzada, R.J.B., Brasileiro de Alvarenga, A.B., Menezes, A.M., Barbosa, J.P., Lopes, P.R., González, F.H.D., McManus C., Broom, D.M. and Bernal, F.E.M.

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 1986

Animal Sentience, 2020

Sentience is not confined to animals with large or human-like brains. Moral standing should be ac... more Sentience is not confined to animals with large or human-like brains. Moral standing should be accorded to all animals, not just vertebrates: invertebrates deserve moral consideration too. Carefully defining the relevant terms can help clarify the relationship between sentience and welfare. All animals have welfare but humans accord more protection to sentient animals. Humans should be less human-centred.

Animal Sentience, 2020

Animal Sentience, 2018.162, 1-7. , 2018

The majority of commentaries are supportive of our position on the scepticism that muddies the wa... more The majority of commentaries are supportive of our position on the scepticism that muddies the waters surrounding fish pain and sentience. There is substantial empirical evidence for pain in fish. Animals' experience of pain cannot be compared to artificial intelligence (AI) because AI can only mimic responses to nociceptive input on the basis of human observations and programming. Accepting that fish are sentient would not be detrimental to the industries reliant on fish. A more proactive discussion between scientists and stakeholders is needed to improve fish welfare for the benefit of all.

Animal Sentience, 2018

Recent empirical studies have reported evidence that many aquatic species, including fish, cephal... more Recent empirical studies have reported evidence that many aquatic species, including fish,
cephalopods and crustaceans, have the capacity for nociception and pain, and that their welfare should be taken
into consideration. Some sceptics, rejecting the precautionary principle, have denied that any study
demonstrates pain or other aspects of sentience in fish. This target article discusses some of the scientific
shortcomings of these critiques through a detailed analysis of a study exploring nociception and analgesia in larval zebrafish.
Sneddon, L.U., Lopez-Luna, J., Wolfenden, D.C.C., Leach, M.C., Valentim, A.M. Steenbergen, P.J., Bardine, N., Currie, A.D., Broom, D.M. and Brown, C.

Animal Welfare, 2018

In the expanding salmon industry, many farmers use production methods that could result in poor w... more In the expanding salmon industry, many farmers use production methods that could result in poor welfare of the fish at various points
of their lifecycle. We have reviewed methods used for producing salmon for food with the aim of identifying and drawing attention
to factors likely to affect farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) welfare. In addition to water conditions and high stocking density at
sea, other issues are important for fish welfare. Handling and transport of salmon between fresh- and seawater phases and before
slaughter can have severe negative effects and research should continue to seek improved methods. Stocking densities in fresh- or
seawater have substantial effects on the welfare of salmon and a reduction in densities should be considered in order to reduce fin
damage in particular. Currently used feeding systems result in starvation for some fish and fin damage for others, hence new systems
should be developed. Some on-demand feeding systems improve welfare. All farmed fish should be stunned prior to slaughter, not
left to die of asphyxia. Carbon dioxide and electrical stunning methods do not always stun salmon humanely. The widely used methods
of percussive stunning, manual or automatic, must be precise to effectively stun large numbers of fish. Welfare outcome indicators,
such as fin damage, morbidity and mortality rate, should be used in standards and laws relating to salmon welfare.
Santurtun, E., Broom, D.M. and Phillips, C.J.C. 2018

Discussion of use of larval zebrafish and reply to criticism. Value of these fish in studies of p... more Discussion of use of larval zebrafish and reply to criticism. Value of these fish in studies of pain and analgesia.

In most of Europe, fish from fish farms are not staple foods and many of the products are at the ... more In most of Europe, fish from fish farms are not staple foods and many of the products are at the luxury end of the market. In this circumstance, the demand for the product is elastic and affected considerably by public perception. Concern for animal welfare is increasing rapidly and is a significant factor affecting whether or not animal products are bought. The fish farming industry cannot afford to ignore fish welfare when bad publicity about it could affect sales greatly. The major areas where welfare problems exist at present are as follows: too high a stocking density, feeding methods which do not get food to all of the fish, failure to stun fish, pain in various circumstances, lack of sufficient environmental stimulation, disease, handling, transport of live fish.

It is of scientific and practical interest to consider the levels of cognitive ability in animals... more It is of scientific and practical interest to consider the levels of cognitive ability in animals,
which animals are sentient, which animals have feelings such as pain and which animals
should be protected. A sentient being is one that has some ability to evaluate the actions of others in
relation to itself and third parties, to remember some of its own actions and their consequences, to
assess risk, to have some feelings and to have some degree of awareness. These abilities can be taken
into account when evaluating welfare. There is evidence from some species of fish, cephalopods and
decapod crustaceans of substantial perceptual ability, pain and adrenal systems, emotional
responses, long- and short-term memory, complex cognition, individual differences, deception, tool
use, and social learning. The case for protecting these animals would appear to be substantial. A
range of causes of poor welfare in farmed aquatic animals is summarised.reverence than an inanimate object because living organisms are qualitatively different from inanimate objects in complexity, potential and aesthetic quality. This can affect decisions about whether to kill the organism and whether to conserve such organisms. As a consequence of their ability to respond and behave, we consider that we have more obligations to an animal than to a microorganism or plant. We feel concerned about their welfare, especially in the case of the more complex animals (Broom 2003). Which kinds of animal deserve such consideration? Concern for animal welfare is increasing rapidly and is a significant factor affecting whether or not animal products are bought. If a product is perceived to have adverse effects on human health, animal welfare or the environment, sales can slump dramatically (Bennett 1994). The more valuable the product, the richer the consumers and the more likely they are to decide not to buy a product on grounds such as the poor welfare of fish (Broom 1994). The fish-farming industry cannot afford to ignore fish welfare when bad publicity about it could affect sales greatly (Broom 1999). Our knowledge of the functioning of the brain and nervous system and of animal welfare has advanced rapidly in recent years (Broom & Johnson 2000, Broom & Zanella 2004). New knowledge has tended to show that the abilities and functioning of non-human animals are more complex than had previously been assumed, so it is my opinion that some re-appraisal of the threshold levels for protection is needed. Proposals for change have been made by the EFSA Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (2005). ABSTRACT: It is of scientific and practical interest to consider the levels of cognitive ability in animals , which animals are sentient, which animals have feelings such as pain and which animals should be protected. A sentient being is one that has some ability to evaluate the actions of others in relation to itself and third parties, to remember some of its own actions and their consequences, to assess risk, to have some feelings and to have some degree of awareness. These abilities can be taken into account when evaluating welfare. There is evidence from some species of fish, cephalopods and decapod crustaceans of substantial perceptual ability, pain and adrenal systems, emotional responses, long-and short-term memory, complex cognition, individual differences, deception, tool use, and social learning. The case for protecting these animals would appear to be substantial. A range of causes of poor welfare in farmed aquatic animals is summarised.

The concept of sentience, which concerns the capacity to have feelings, involves cognitive concep... more The concept of sentience, which concerns the capacity to have feelings, involves cognitive concepts and awareness. The cognitive capacities of parrots, corvids, cows, pigs and sheep are substantial. All vertebrates, including fish, are shown to have pain systems. There has been rapid development in animal welfare science, including pain assessment. Examples of new pain indicators in sheep and other species are presented.

The concept of welfare applies to all animals but not to plants or inanimate objects. Hence we ca... more The concept of welfare applies to all animals but not to plants or inanimate objects. Hence we can evaluate and discuss the welfare of invertebrate animals such as snails, insects, spiders and worms, but this does not mean that they have all of the capabilities of more complex animals, or that we wish to protect them in the same way. In considering how we treat animals, one key question is " Should we respect the life of this animal? " A second, linked question is " Should we consider the needs of the animal if we interfere with its life? " A third is " Should we use anaesthetics and analgesics if we damage the tissues of this animal? " There are further questions about the level of awareness that the animal has. For many people, the answers to the questions are affected by whether or not the animal is perceived to be a food item, or likely to harm humans or their resources, or to be considered a beautiful living being. However, when a limpet, a swimming nudibranch, a butterfly, a honeybee, a jumping spider, or a phyllodocid worm is considered objectively, many people would answer yes to two or more of the questions. Information about the various aspects of sentience: perceptual ability, systems for pain and other feelings, learning ability, and various indicators of cognition and awareness is relevant to decisions about protection of animals. The concepts, and some evidence concerning these qualities in invertebrate animals, are presented here. The invertebrate groups most likely to be considered sentient, other than cephalopod molluscs and decapod Crustacea which are reviewed in other papers, are discussed. Whilst cognitive ability in some spiders is high and that in bees, ants and some gastropods is quite high, we cannot be sure that any of these animals feel pain, or that they do not. There is a case for some degree of protection for spiders, gastropods and insects. However, the case is not as strong as that for vertebrates, cephalopods and decapod Crustacea at present.

Studies of behaviour are of major importance in understanding human pain and pain in other animal... more Studies of behaviour are of major importance in understanding human pain and pain in other animals such as fish. Almost all of the characteristics of the mammalian pain system are also described for fish. Emotions, feelings and learning from these are controlled in the fish brain in areas anatomically different but functionally very similar to those in mammals. The evidence of pain and fear system function in fish is so similar to that in humans and other mammals that it is logical to conclude that fish feel fear and pain. Fish are sentient beings.

Sentience involves having some degree of awareness but awareness of self is not as complex as som... more Sentience involves having some degree of awareness but awareness of self is not as complex as some people believe. Fully functioning vertebrate animals, and some invertebrates, are sentient but neither humans nor non-humans are sentient early in development or if brain-damaged. Feelings are valuable adaptive mechanisms and an important part of welfare but are not all of welfare so the term welfare refers to all animals, not just to sentient animals. We have much to learn about what non-human animals want from us, the functioning of the more complex aspects of their brains and of our brains and how we should treat animals of each species. Animal welfare science will continue to play a major part in determining how we fulfill our obligations to the animals with which we interact.

Proceedings of the Australian Veterinary Association Annual Conference, Perth, 70-71. St Leonards, NSW: Australian Veterinary Association., 2019

All vertebrates, including fish and other farmed animals, are shown to have pain systems with the... more All vertebrates, including fish and other farmed animals, are shown to have pain systems with the same function but with different areas of the brain involved in different groups of animals.There has been rapid development in animal welfare science, including pain assessment, so that we now have better information to use when judging when anaesthesia and analgesia should be used. Evidence from studies using physiological and behavioural measures indicates the extent of pain during farm operations such as castration, disbudding, branding and mulesing. Pain resulting from different disbudding and castration methods is discussed. Disease can cause substantial pain in humans, farm animals and companion animals. Examples of new pain indicators include the grimace scales, that have been developed for rodents, sheep, goats and horses, and the use of thermographic imaging. The public demand ethical decisions in relation to pain avoidance.

In: Choe, J.C. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior, (2nd ed.). vol. 1, pp. 131–133. Elsevier, Academic Press., 2019

Sentience means having the capacity to have feelings. This requires a level of awareness and cogn... more Sentience means having the capacity to have feelings. This requires a level of awareness and cognitive ability. There is evidence for sophisticated cognitive concepts and for both positive and negative feelings in a wide range of nonhuman animals. The abilities necessary for sentience appear at a certain stage in humans, as in other species, and brain damage can result in those abilities being lost so not all humans are sentient. Sentient animals include fish and other vertebrates, as well as some molluscs and decapod crustaceans. Most people today consider that their moral obligations extend to many animal species. Moral decisions about abortion, euthanasia, and the various ways we protect animals should take into account the research findings about sentience.

In Le Bien-être Animal: de la Science au Droit, ed. S. Hild et L. Schweitzer, 299-316. Paris: L’Harmattan., 2018

Pain and other poor welfare that is legal in various countries. Examples in crude farm operation ... more Pain and other poor welfare that is legal in various countries. Examples in crude farm operation without the use of anaesthetic or analgesic, housing in conditions that do not meet the needs of the animals, slaughter without stunning, force-feeding for foie gras production, etc.

Informations de capacité cognitif, sentience et bien-être des animaux de ferme.

We tested the ability of cattle to discriminate between socially familiar conspecifics in a Y-maz... more We tested the ability of cattle to discriminate between socially familiar conspecifics in a Y-maze discrimination experiment. The discriminative stimuli were herd members tethered in the Y-maze side arms (stimulus heifers); approach to one of these was rewarded with food and approach to the other was unrewarded, and their positions were randomly swapped. Each of six experimental heifers was subjected to two pairs of stimulus heifers. All subjects reached the learning criterion (19 out of 20 consecutive choices to the rewarded stimulus heifer's position in the Y-maze) with one pair of stimulus heifers. With the other pair, learning was slower and only three of the subjects reached criterion. All heifers that reached criterion chose correctly in at least five additional trials designed to control for cues emanating from the experimenter's behaviour or from the food reward. We conclude that cattle can discriminate between individual familiar conspecifics, that they can learn discrimination tasks quickly, and that speed of learning and level of correct response can be influenced by the identity of the stimulus individuals. We also explored the experimental heifers' behaviour during the learning process. Behaviours indicative of agitation were observed more often in the second task than in the first and also increased with time during learning tasks (P < 0.05), but were not related to whether a heifer made a correct choice. Head orientation predicted the correct direction when this was subsequently chosen (P < 0.05), whereas body orientation tended to predict the correct direction when the incorrect arm was subsequently chosen (P = 0.063).

Visual acuity is an important component of environmental recognition in sheep, yet knowledge abou... more Visual acuity is an important component of environmental recognition in sheep, yet knowledge about it is limited in this or other herbivorous species. We tested the ability of BritishFriesland × Texel female lambs to discriminate black and white square-wave grat- ings, presented vertically or horizontally, from a grey stimulus. Animal and environmental conditions were optimised for detection of visual acuity. Sheep could rapidly learn to discriminate some gratings from a grey stimulus. There was no difference in the ability of sheep to discriminate vertical or horizontal stimuli from a grey stimulus. Visual acuity, determined at between 11.7 and 14.0 cycles/degree, was greater than that previously predicted from anatomical measurements (7–10 cycles/degree), and considerably greater than that measured for sheep by the Landoldt C ring technique (2.6–5.7 cycles/degree). It was also greater than that measured previously in most research using ungulates and other herbivores, with a variety of techniques. It is concluded that sheep visual acuity is potentially greater than hitherto realised, but that standardisation of techniques is required to make
accurate comparisons with data gathered previously. Additionally, the ability to gauge an animal’s awareness and its response(s) to various visual optotypes in its macro-environment will enable us to design livestock housing, handling and transport facilities that promote animal welfare.

It has been suggested that during instrumental learning, animals are likely to react emotionally ... more It has been suggested that during instrumental learning, animals are likely to react emotionally to the reinforcer. They may in addition react emotionally to their own achievements. These reactions are of interest with regard to the animals' capacity for self-awareness. Therefore, we devised a yoked control experiment involving the acquisition of an operant task. We aimed to identify the emotional reactions of young cattle to their own learning and to separate these from reactions to a food reward. Twelve Holstein–Friesian heifers aged 7–12 months were divided into two groups. Heifers in the experimental group were conditioned over a 14-day period to press a panel in order to open a gate for access to a food reward. For heifers in the control group, the gate opened after a delay equal to their matched partner's latency to open it. To allow for observation of the heifers' movements during locomotion after the gate had opened, there was a 15 m distance in the form of a race from the gate to the food trough. The heart rate of the heifers, and their behaviour when moving along the race towards the food reward were measured. When experimental heifers made clear improvements in learning, they were more likely than on other occasions to have higher heart rates and tended to move more vigorously along the race in comparison with their controls. This experiment found some, albeit inconclusive, indication that cattle may react emotionally to their own learning improvement.

Mirror usage has been taken to indicate some degree of awareness in animals. Can pigs obtain info... more Mirror usage has been taken to indicate some degree of awareness in animals. Can pigs obtain information from a mirror? When put in a pen with a mirror in it, young pigs made movements while apparently looking at their image. After 5 hours spent with a mirror, the pigs were shown a familiar food bowl, visible in the mirror but hidden behind a solid barrier. Seven out of eight pigs found the food bowl in a mean of 23s by going away from the mirror and around the barrier. Naïve pigs shown the same, looked behind the mirror. The pigs were not locating the food bowl by odour, did not have a preference for the area where the food bowl was and did not go to that area when the food bowl was visible elsewhere. To use information from a mirror and find a food bowl, each pig must have observed features of its surroundings, remembered these and its own actions, deduced relationships among observed and remembered features and acted accordingly. This ability indicates assessment awareness in pigs. The results may have some effects on the design of housing conditions for pigs and may lead to better pig welfare.

Observation of behaviour, especially social behaviour, and experimental studies of learning and b... more Observation of behaviour, especially social behaviour, and experimental studies of learning and brain function give us information about the complexity of concepts that animals have. In order to learn to obtain a resource or carry out an action, domestic animals may: relate stimuli such as human words to the reward, perform sequences of actions including navigation or detours, discriminate among other individuals, copy the actions of other individuals, distinguish between individuals who do or do not have information, or communicate so as to cause humans or other animals to carry out actions. Some parrots, that are accustomed to humans but not domesticated, can use words to have specific meanings. In some cases, stimuli, individuals or actions are remembered for days, weeks or years. Events likely to occur in the future may be predicted and changes over time taken into account. Scientific evidence for the needs of animals depends, in part, on studies assessing motivational strength whose methodology depends on the cognitive ability of the animals.

The concept of sentience concerns the capacity to have feelings. There is evidence for sophistica... more The concept of sentience concerns the capacity to have feelings. There is evidence for sophisticated cognitive concepts and for both positive and negative feelings in a wide range of nonhuman animals. All vertebrates, including fish, as well as some molluscs and decapod crustaceans have pain systems. Most people today consider that their moral obligations extend to many animal species. Moral decisions about abortion, euthanasia, and the various ways we protect animals should take into account the research findings about sentience. In addition, all animal life should be respected and studies of the welfare of even the simplest invertebrate animals should be taken into consideration when we interact with these animals.

Book, 2018

Animals are among the most sought after tourist attractions and the impact on them is a matter of... more Animals are among the most sought after tourist attractions and the impact on them is a matter of concern to an increasing number of people. The first book of its kind, Tourism and Animal Welfare addresses the issue of animal welfare within the tourism experience. It explores important foundations such as the meaning of 'animal welfare' and its relation to ethics, animal rights and human obligations to animals. It also explores the nature and diversity of the position and role of animals within tourism.

‘Tales from the front line’ is the section of the book that provides the reader with the views and experiences of animal welfare organisations, individual leaders, tourism industry organisations and operators, and academic experts. These case studies and opinion pieces will encourage the reader to consider their own position regarding animals in tourism and their welfare.

This study, commissioned by the Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs... more This study, commissioned by the Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs upon request of the Committee on Petitions, finds out that EU animal welfare policy and legislation has had much positive influence in the world, on the image of the EU as well as helping animals. However, most kinds of animals kept in the EU are not covered by legislation, including some of the worst animal welfare problems, so a general animal welfare law and specific laws on several species are needed. Animal sentience and welfare should be mentioned, using accurate scientific terminology, in many trade-related laws as well as in animal-specific laws.

Details of the content of this book are in the uploaded preface.

Book, 50% text, 50% photographs, see contents.

Animal behaviour textbook, see Preface. Evolution of behaviour, motivation, social behaviour, rol... more Animal behaviour textbook, see Preface. Evolution of behaviour, motivation, social behaviour, role of learning in all behaviour, development of behaviour, behaviour of economically important animals.

Book (pp 317) about all companion, working and farmed animals (see Preface).

Book (pp160) about all farmed animals, see Preface.

Book with biological and philosophical approach.

People spend much time writing and discussing clever or stupid actions, learning and memory, suff... more People spend much time writing and discussing clever or stupid actions, learning and memory, suffering or feeling happy, and how to deal with the various aspects of the world in which we live. These are the subjects of “Sentience and Animal Welfare by Donald M. Broom. Sentience is a term used in relation to human questions, such as when a foetus or baby is fully functioning, and how we decide when brain function has been lost in the brain-damaged or old. However, its most widespread use concerns the abilities of various animal species. How clever are the animals and what can they feel? The similarities between humans and other animals are described at length. After introducing the term sentience, the ethical background to some of the issues discussed is presented. The relevant aspects of research on cognition, feelings, emotion, awareness and motivation are explained with many examples.
The concept of welfare is of key importance in our lives and in that of other animals. Hence the concept and its history are explained and the rapid developments in animal welfare science chronicled. How the methodology is being related to legislation and codes of practice is discussed. Animal welfare is a part of the sustainability of systems in which we use or have an effect on animals. The increase in the power of consumers in dictating to retail companies, production companies and governments is emphasised. Other matters discussed include the welfare of whales, animal welfare and the World Trade Organisation action on seal products, welfare aspects of the use of genetically modified and cloned animals and ethical decisions about human sentience and animal protection.

Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 147, 243-244., 2013

Book review: Overall, the book is interesting and informative about philosophical issues related ... more Book review: Overall, the book is interesting and informative about philosophical issues related to the concept of morality. However, the much less thorough use of scientific information is frustrating to a biologist and results in conclusions that would be likely to be different if all information available were utilised.

Animal Welfare 25, 299-301, 2016

Review of book. Most of the book concerns long-distance animal export and international trade in ... more Review of book. Most of the book concerns long-distance animal export and international trade in meat products. However, there are also short sections on trade in horses, cats, dogs, exotic animals, marine animals, kangaroos and bush-meat.

Review of Webster animal welfare book

Review of Domestication book

Review of David Fraser's book.

Book review Broom D M 2014, Animals 4, 779-780.

CABI eBooks, Nov 26, 2021

Abstract The levels of description, measures during veterinary examination, experimental design a... more Abstract The levels of description, measures during veterinary examination, experimental design and observational procedures, marking, sampling, recording and field studies regarding domestic animal behaviour are presented.

CABI eBooks, 2015

"Behaviour is a significant indicator of health in animals and understanding behaviour is th... more "Behaviour is a significant indicator of health in animals and understanding behaviour is the key to good management. Animal behaviour and animal welfare science are fast becoming core topics in the curricula of agriculture and veterinary students." "The eagerly awaited fourth edition of Farm Animal Behaviour and Welfare has a new title to reflect its expansion to include companion animals. Domestic Animal Behaviour and Welfare builds on the coverage of the previous edition, fully updating it to take into account developments over the last 10 years. It is an indispensable textbook for students and practitioners, covering major and growing areas in agricultural and veterinary science and practice."--Jacket.

Springer eBooks, 1993

Since our definition of welfare refers to the state of an animal, we should be able to use measur... more Since our definition of welfare refers to the state of an animal, we should be able to use measurements of that state to indicate welfare. Many aspects of an individual’s biology can reflect its attempts to cope with its environment, because there are various ways of trying to cope as well as numerous indicators of failure to cope. There can also be signs that welfare is good. It could be that, to combat some problem, one particular coping method is mainly employed, so measurements of that method would provide most of the necessary information. In most studies of welfare, however, it is desirable that a range of measures be obtained. Measures or techniques that are currently proving to be of value in assessing welfare are reviewed in this and the following two chapters. In practice, measurements of poor welfare are more common than those of good welfare, since poor welfare is associated with more obvious behavioural, physiological and pathological signs. Responses to, and consequences of, short-term problems are considered in this chapter.

CABI eBooks, Nov 26, 2021

Abstract The welfare aspects (on housing and management) of other pet animals such as small mamma... more Abstract The welfare aspects (on housing and management) of other pet animals such as small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and other invertebrates are discussed.

If we want to find out what resources and living conditions people need for good welfare, we can ... more If we want to find out what resources and living conditions people need for good welfare, we can study what they choose when given access to alternatives. Once an option is chosen, we must then also take account of the actual effects of having that resource. The assessment of such effects was the subject of Chapter 6, while this chapter is about what is preferred and what is avoided. Observing preferences is also a well-known guide to providing adequately for the animals we keep. Dog owners soon come to recognize the indications given by their dog that it wishes to have food or to go out for a walk. Similarly studies in which farm animals are offered different foods have been of value in deciding which foods to provide and which to avoid. In recent years, sophisticated experimental techniques have been developed which give detailed information, not only about the existence of a preference, but about the strength of the preference.

CABI eBooks, Nov 26, 2021

Some terms used in the description of social behaviour are presented, including physical structur... more Some terms used in the description of social behaviour are presented, including physical structure, social structure, social network, group cohesion, leader, initiator, controller, competition and hierarchy.

CABI eBooks, 2015

This chapter describes the different types of very low or very high levels of activity and respon... more This chapter describes the different types of very low or very high levels of activity and responsiveness in domestic animals.

CABI eBooks, Nov 26, 2021

Abstract This chapter discusses some aspects in the organization behaviour of animals which inclu... more Abstract This chapter discusses some aspects in the organization behaviour of animals which includes: locomotion and exercise; posture and movements at rest; locomotion and gaits; distance travelled; and the need for exercise.

World's Poultry Science Journal, 1990

The incidence of bone breakage and other traumas in end-of-lay birds at the time of slaughter hav... more The incidence of bone breakage and other traumas in end-of-lay birds at the time of slaughter have important welfare and commercial implications. The problem is greatest among birds from the cage system where injury and stress appear to be particularly associated with the process of removing the birds from their cages and subsequent handling. The bone strength of cage-housed birds, together with some physiological and behavioural aspects, are briefly considered. Suggestions are made for reducing the incidence of injuries during bird removal.

Livestock Production Science, Jul 1, 1993

CABI eBooks, Nov 26, 2021

Abstract The 6th edition of this book contains 42 chapters on one biology, ethics, sentience and ... more Abstract The 6th edition of this book contains 42 chapters on one biology, ethics, sentience and sustainability; behaviour and welfare concepts; describing, recording and measuring behaviour; learning, cognition and behaviour development; motivation; evolution and optimality; welfare assessment; defence and attack behaviour; finding and acquiring food; body care; locomotion and space occupancy; exploration; spacing behaviour; rest and sleep; general and social behaviour; human-domestic animal interactions; seasonal and reproductive behaviour; sexual behaviour; fetal and parturient behaviour; maternal and neonatal behaviour; juvenile and play behaviour; handling, transport and humane control of domestic animals; stunning and slaughter; welfare and behaviour in relation to disease; different types of abnormal behaviours and the breeding, feeding, housing and welfare of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, fishes, deer, camelids, ostriches, furbearing animals, horses, other equids, draught animals, rabbits, dogs, cats and other pets and welfare in a moral world. The book is illustrated with many photographs and includes a much-expanded reference list, an author index and a subject index.

CABI eBooks, Nov 26, 2021

This chapter describes the physiological and behavioural characteristics of sleeping and resting ... more This chapter describes the physiological and behavioural characteristics of sleeping and resting in cats, dogs, cattle, horses, pigs, sheep and poultry.

CABI eBooks, Nov 26, 2021

This chapter provides information on the behaviour of domestic animals during early and parental ... more This chapter provides information on the behaviour of domestic animals during early and parental stage which includes the following topics: parental investment; initiation of maternal behaviour; maternal motivation; milk let-down; nursing and suckling; and behaviour of the newborn animals in various species.

CABI eBooks, Nov 26, 2021

Abstract This chapter discusses the concepts of one biology, sentience and animal protection, as ... more Abstract This chapter discusses the concepts of one biology, sentience and animal protection, as well as ideas on genes, environment, ethics, attitudes to domestic and other animals, and on how to measure sustainability and number of domestic animals.

Donald M Broom | University of Cambridge (original) (raw)

Motivation and behaviour development by Donald M Broom

Social behaviour, brain funct, behaviour general by Donald M Broom