Pragmatic approaches to therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus (original) (raw)

• Sabahi, R. & Anolik, J. H. B-cell-targeted therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus. Drugs 66, 1933–1948 (2006).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Jimenez, S., Cervera, R., Font, J. & Ingelmo, M. The epidemiology of systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol. 25, 3–11 (2003).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• FDA. Press release: FDA approves Benlysta to treat lupus. FDA [online].
• Gladman, D. D. & Urowitz, M. B. in Dubois' Lupus Erythematosus (eds Wallace, D. J. & Hahn, B. H) 1333–1353 (Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2007).
  Google Scholar
• Ward, M. M., Pyun, E. & Studenski, S. Mortality risks associated with specific clinical manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arch. Intern. Med. 156, 1337–1344 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bertsias, G. et al. EULAR recommendations for the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus: report of a task force of the EULAR standing committee for international clinical studies including therapeutics. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 67, 195–205 (2008).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Gladman, D. et al. The development and initial validation of the Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics/American College of Rheumatology damage index for systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 39, 363–369 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Manzi, S. in Primer on the Rheumatic Diseases 13th edn (eds Klippel, J. H. et al.) 346–352 (Arthritis Foundation, 2008).
  Google Scholar
• Formica, M. K., Palmer, J. R., Rosenberg, L. & McAlindon, T. E. Smoking, alcohol consumption, and risk of systemic lupus erythematosus in the Black Women's Health Study. J. Rheumatol. 30, 1222–1226 (2003).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Ghaussy, N. O., Sibbitt, W. Jr, Bankhurst, A. D. & Qualls, C. R. Cigarette smoking and disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 30, 1215–1221 (2003).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Urowitz, M. B., Ibañez, D. & Gladman, D. D. Atherosclerotic vascular events in a single large lupus cohort: prevalence and risk factors. J. Rheumatol. 34, 70–75 (2007).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Hak, A. E., Karlson, E. W., Feskanich, D., Stampfer, M. J. & Costenbader, K. H. Systemic lupus erythematosus and the risk of cardiovascular disease: results from the nurses' health study. Arthritis Rheum. 61, 1396–1402 (2009).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Bruce, I. N., Gladman, D. D. & Urowitz, M. B. Detection and modification of risk factors for coronary artery disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a quality improvement study. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 16, 435–440 (1998).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wajed, J., Ahmad, Y., Durrington, P. N. & Bruce, I. N. Prevention of cardiovascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus—proposed guidelines for risk factor management. Rheumatology (Oxford) 43, 7–12 (2004).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Bruce, I. N. Cardiovascular disease in lupus patients: should all patients be treated with statins and aspirin? Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol. 19, 823–838 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bruce, I. N., Urowitz, M. B., Gladman, D. D., Ibañez, D. & Steiner, G. S. Risk factors for coronary heart disease in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: the Toronto Risk Factor Study. Arthritis Rheum. 48, 3159–3167 (2003).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Toloza, S. M. et al. Vitamin D insufficiency in a large female SLE cohort. Lupus 19, 13–19 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Almehed, K. et al. Prevalence and risk factors of osteoporosis in female SLE patients—extended report. Rheumatology (Oxford) 46, 1185–1190 (2007).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Panopalis, P. & Yazdany, J. Bone health in systemic lupus erythematosus. Curr. Rheumatol. Rep. 11, 177–184 (2009).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Ramsey-Goldman, R. et al. Frequency of fractures in women with systemic lupus erythematosus: comparison with United States population data. Arthritis Rheum. 42, 882–890 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• van Staa, T. P., Leufkens, H. G. & Cooper, C. The epidemiology of corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis: a meta-analysis. Osteoporos. Int. 13, 777–787 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Grossman, J. M. et al. American College of Rheumatology recommendations for the prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Arthritis Care Res. 62, 1515–1526 (2010).
  Article Google Scholar
• Jungers, P. et al. Influence of oral contraceptive therapy on the activity of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 25, 618–623 (1982).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Petri, M. & Allbritton, J. Antibiotic allergy in systemic lupus erythematosus: a case–control study. J. Rheumatol. 19, 265–269 (1992).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Jeffries, M. et al. Sulpha allergy in lupus patients: a clinical perspective. Lupus 17, 202–205 (2008).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sánchez-Guerrero, J. et al. A trial of contraceptive methods in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 2539–2549 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Petri, M. et al. Combined oral contraceptives in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 2550–2558 (2005).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Julkunen, H. A., Kaaja, R. & Friman, C. Contraceptive practice in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Br. J. Rheumatol. 32, 227–230 (1993).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• ACOG Committee on Practice Bulletins-Gynecology. ACOG practice bulletin. No. 73: Use of hormonal contraception in women with coexisting medical conditions. Obstet. Gynecol. 107, 1453–1472 (2006).
• Urbanus, R. T. et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and risk of myocardial infarction and ischaemic stroke in young women in the RATIO study: a case–control study. Lancet Neurol. 8, 998–1005 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Buyon, J. P. et al. The effect of combined estrogen and progesterone hormone replacement therapy on disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus: a randomized trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 142, 953–962 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Petri, M., Howard, D. & Repke, J. Frequency of lupus flare in pregnancy. The Hopkins Lupus Pregnancy Center experience. Arthritis Rheum. 34, 1538–1545 (1991).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza, G. et al. Increased rate of lupus flare during pregnancy and the puerperium: a prospective study of 78 pregnancies. Br. J. Rheumatol. 35, 133–138 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Yasmeen, S. et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Matern. Fetal Med. 10, 91–96 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Clowse, M. E. Lupus activity in pregnancy. Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. 33, 237–252 (2007).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Al-Herz, A., Schulzer, M. & Esdaile, J. M. Survey of antimalarial use in lupus pregnancy and lactation. J. Rheumatol. 29, 700–706 (2002).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Parke, A. L. & Rothfield, N. F. Antimalarial drugs in pregnancy—the North American experience. Lupus 5 (Suppl. 1), S67–S69 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Costedoat-Chalumeau, N. et al. Safety of hydroxychloroquine in pregnant patients with connective tissue diseases: a study of one hundred thirty-three cases compared with a control group. Arthritis Rheum. 48, 3207–3211 (2003).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bermas, B. L. & Hill, J. A. Effects of immunosuppressive drugs during pregnancy. Arthritis Rheum. 38, 1722–1732 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Clowse, M. E., Magder, L. & Petri, M. Cyclophosphamide for lupus during pregnancy. Lupus 14, 593–597 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Gladman, D. & Urowitz, M. Guidelines for referral and management of systemic lupus erythematosus in adults. Arthritis Rheum. 42, 1785–1796 (1999).
  Article Google Scholar
• Lander, S. A., Wallace, D. J. & Weisman, M. H. Celecoxib for systemic lupus erythematosus: case series and literature review of the use of NSAIDs in SLE. Lupus 11, 340–347 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• D'Cruz, D. P., Khamashta, M. A. & Hughes, G. R. Systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 369, 587–596 (2007).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Sibilia, J. Treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus in 2006. Joint Bone Spine 73, 591–598 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sostres, C., Gargallo, C. J. & Arroyo, M. T. Adverse effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs, aspirin and coxibs) on upper gastrointestinal tract. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 24, 121–132 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Horizon, A. A. & Wallace, D. J. Risk:benefit ratio of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in systemic lupus erythematosus. Expert Opin. Drug Saf. 3, 273–278 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Scheiman, J. M. & Hindley, C. E. Strategies to optimize treatment with NSAIDs in patients at risk for gastrointestinal and cardiovascular adverse events. Clin. Ther. 32, 667–677 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bhatt, D. L. et al. ACCF/ACG/AHA expert consensus document on reducing the gastrointestinal risks of antiplatelet therapy and NSAID use: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents. Circulation 118, 1894–1909 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Kyburz, D., Brentano, F. & Gay, S. Mode of action of hydroxychloroquine in RA—evidence of an inhibitory effect on Toll-like receptor signaling. Nat. Clin. Pract. Rheumatol. 2, 458–459 (2006).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Petri, M. Hydroxychloroquine use in the Baltimore Lupus Cohort: effects on lipids, glucose and thrombosis. Lupus 5 (Suppl. 1), S16 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza, G., Ramos-Casals, M., Brito-Zeron, P. & Khamashta, M. A. Clinical efficacy and side effects of antimalarials in systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 69, 20–28 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Fessler, B. J. et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in three ethnic groups: XVI. Association of hydroxychloroquine use with reduced risk of damage accrual. Arthritis Rheum. 52, 1473–1480 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Alarcon, G. S. et al. Effect of hydroxychloroquine on the survival of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: data from LUMINA, a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA L). Ann. Rheum. Dis. 66, 1168–1172 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza, G. et al. Effects of antimalarials on thrombosis and survival in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 15, 577–583 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Jung, H., Bobba, R. & Su, J. The protective effect of antimalarial drugs on thrombovascular events in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 62, 863–868 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Broder, A. & Putterman, C. The effects of hydroxychloroquine on antiphospholipid antibody titres in SLE. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 69, A10–A11 (2010).
  Article Google Scholar
• Tam, L. S. et al. Effect of antimalarial agents of the fasting lipid profile in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 27, 2142–2145 (2000).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Borba, E. F. & Bonfá, E. Longterm beneficial effect of chloroquine diphosphate on lipoprotein profile in lupus patients with and without steroid therapy. J. Rheumatol. 28, 780–785 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lakshminarayanan, S., Walsh, S., Mohanraj, M. & Rothfield, N. Factors associated with low bone mineral density in female patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 28, 102–108 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kalunian, K. & Merrill, J. T. New directions in the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 6, 1501–1514 (2009).
  Article Google Scholar
• Amissah-Arthur, M. B. & Gordon, C. Contemporary treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus: an update for clinicians. Ther. Adv. Chronic Dis. 1, 163–175 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Tseng, C. E. et al. The effect of moderate-dose corticosteroids in preventing severe flares in patients with serologically active, but clinically stable, systemic lupus erythematosus: findings of a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum. 54, 3623–3632 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Elbirt, D., Sthoeger, D., Asher, I. & Sthoeger, Z. M. The management of systemic lupus erythematosus: facts and controversies. Clin. Dermatol. 28, 330–336 (2010).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Parker, B. J. & Bruce, I. N. High dose methylprednisolone therapy for the treatment of severe systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 16, 387–393 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Recommendation for the prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: 2001 update. American College of Rheumatology ad hoc committee on glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Arthritis Rheum. 44, 1496–1503 (2001).
• Chan, E. S. & Cronstein, B. N. Methotrexate —how does it really work? Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 6, 175–178 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Carneiro, J. R. & Sato, E. I. Double blind, randomized, placebo controlled clinical trial of methotrexate in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 26, 1275–1279 (1999).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Fortin, P. R. et al. Steroid-sparing effects of methotrexate in systemic lupus erythematosus: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum. 59, 1796–1804 (2008).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Islam, N. et al. Efficacy and safety of methotrexate in articular and cutaneous manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus. Int. J. Rheum. Dis. 15, 62–68 (2012).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Swaak, A. J. et al. Azathioprine in the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus. A three-year prospective study. Clin. Rheumatol. 3, 285–291 (1984).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Contreras, G. et al. Sequential therapy for proliferative lupus nephritis. N. Engl. J. Med. 350, 971–980 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Manzi, S. in Primer on the Rheumatic Diseases (eds Kippel, J. H. et al.) 346–352 (The Arthritis Foundation, Atlanta, 2001).
  Google Scholar
• Becker, H., Potyka, P., Weber, C., Renelt, M. & Federlin, K. T-helper cell subsets in patients with inflammatory rheumatic diseases undergoing immunosuppressive therapy. Immun. Infekt. 19, 26–27 (1991).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Petri, M., Jones, R. J. & Brodsky, R. A. High-dose cyclophosphamide without stem cell transplantation in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 48, 166–173 (2003).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Petri, M. Cyclophosphamide: new approaches for systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 13, 366–371 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Houssiau, F. A. et al. Immunosuppressive therapy in lupus nephritis: the Euro-Lupus Nephritis Trial, a randomized trial of low-dose versus high-dose intravenous cyclophosphamide. Arthritis Rheum. 46, 2121–2131 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Houssiau, F. A. et al. The 10-year follow-up data of the Euro-Lupus Nephritis Trial comparing low-dose and high-dose intravenous cyclophosphamide. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 69, 61–64 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Monach, P. A., Arnold, L. M. & Merkel, P. A. Incidence and prevention of bladder toxicity from cyclophosphamide in the treatment of rheumatic diseases: a data-driven review. Arthritis Rheum. 62, 9–21 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Somers, E. C. et al. Use of a gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog for protection against premature ovarian failure during cyclophosphamide therapy in women with severe lupus. Arthritis Rheum. 52, 2761–2767 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ginzler, E. M. & Aranow, C. Mycophenolate mofetil in lupus nephritis. Lupus 14, 59–64 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Mak, A. et al. Mycophenolate mofetil is as efficacious as, but safer than, cyclophosphamide in the treatment of proliferative lupus nephritis: a meta-analysis and meta-regression. Rheumatology (Oxford) 48, 944–952 (2009).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Kamanamool, N. et al. Efficacy and adverse events of mycophenolate mofetil versus cyclophosphamide for induction therapy of lupus nephritis. Medicine 89, 227–235 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Dooley, M. A. et al. Mycophenolate versus azathioprine as maintenance therapy for lupus nephritis. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 1886–1895 (2011).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pisoni, C. N. et al. Mycophenolate mofetil in systemic lupus erythematosus: efficacy and tolerability in 86 patients. J. Rheumatol. 32, 1047–1052 (2005).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Baker, K. P. et al. Generation and characterization of LymphoStat-B, a human monoclonal antibody that antagonizes the bioactivities of B lymphocyte stimulator. Arthritis Rheum. 48, 3253–3265 (2003).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Houssiau, F. A. et al. Azathioprine versus mycophenolate mofetil for long-term immunosuppression in lupus nephritis: results from the MAINTAIN Nephritis Trial. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 69, 2083–2089 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hahn, B. H. et al. American College of Rheumatology guidelines for screening, treatment, and management of lupus nephritis. Arthritis Care Res. 64, 797–808 (2012).
  Article Google Scholar
• Xiong, W. & Lahita, R. Novel treatments for systemic lupus erythematosus. Ther. Adv. Musculoskelet Dis. 3, 255–266 (2011).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Yoo, D. H. Anticytokine therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 19, 1460–1467 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Yildirim-Toruner, C. & Diamond, B. Current and novel therapeutics in the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 127, 303–312 (2011).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Bezalel, S., Asher, I., Elbirt, D. & Sthoeger, Z. M. Novel biological treatments for systemic lupus erythematosus: current and future modalities. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 14, 508–514 (2012).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Human Genome Sciences. Arthritis Advisory Committee Meeting briefing document for the 16 November meeting. FDA [online], (2010).
• Navarra, S. V. et al. Efficacy and safety of belimumab in patients with active systemic lupus erythematosus: a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 377, 721–731 (2011).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Furie, R. et al. A phase III, randomized, placebo-controlled study of belimumab, a monoclonal antibody that inhibits B lymphocyte stimulator, in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 63, 3918–3930 (2011).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Wallace, D. J. et al. A phase II, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging study of belimumab in patients with active systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 61, 1168–1178 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Ramos-Casals, M., Sanz, I., Bosch, X., Stone, J. H. & Khamashta, M. A. B-cell-depleting therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus. Am. J. Med. 125, 327–336 (2012).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Wallace, D. J. et al. Safety profile of belimumab: pooled data from placebo-controlled phase 2 and 3 studies in patients with active systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 22, 144–154 (2013).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cheema, G. S., Roschke, V., Hilbert, D. M. & Stohl, W. Elevated serum B lymphocyte stimulator levels in patients with systemic immune-based rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Rheum. 44, 1313–1319 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Furie, R. et al. Biologic activity and safety of belimumab, a neutralizing anti-B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) monoclonal antibody: a phase I trial in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res. Ther. 10, R109 (2008).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Karim, M. Y., Pisoni, C. N. & Khamashta, M. A. Update on immunotherapy for systemic lupus erythematosus—what's hot and what's not! Rheumatology (Oxford) 48, 332–341 (2009).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Lu, T. Y. et al. A retrospective seven-year analysis of the use of B cell depletion therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus at University College London Hospital: the first fifty patients. Arthritis Rheum. 61, 482–487 (2009).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Ramos-Casals, M., Soto, M. J., Cuadrado, M. J. & Khamashta, M. A. Rituximab in systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review of off-label use in 188 cases. Lupus 18, 767–776 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Turner-Stokes, T. et al. The efficacy of repeated treatment with B-cell depletion therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus: an evaluation. Rheumatology (Oxford) 50, 1401–1408 (2011).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Terrier, B. et al. Safety and efficacy of rituximab in systemic lupus erythematosus: results from 136 patients from the French AutoImmunity and Rituximab registry. Arthritis Rheum. 62, 2458–2466 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Merrill, J. et al. Assessment of flares in lupus patients enrolled in a phase II/III study of rituximab (EXPLORER). Lupus 20, 709–716 (2011).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Furie, R. et al. Efficacy and safety of rituximab in subjects with active proliferative lupus nephritis (LN): results from the randomized, double-blind phase III LUNAR study. Arthritis Rheum. 60 (Suppl. 1), S429 (2009).
  Google Scholar
• Arnal, C. et al. Treatment of severe immune thrombocytopenia associated with systemic lupus erythematosus: 59 cases. J. Rheumatol. 29, 75–83 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Levy, Y. et al. A study of 20 SLE patients with intravenous immunoglobulin—clinical and serologic response. Lupus 8, 705–712 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Milstone, A. M., Meyers, K. & Elia, J. Treatment of acute neuropsychiatric lupus with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG): a case report and review of the literature. Clin. Rheumatol. 24, 394–397 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Micheloud, D., Calderon, M., Caparrros, M. & D'Cruz, D. P. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in severe lupus myocarditis: good outcome in three patients. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 66, 986–987 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Lazurova, I. et al. Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in lupus erythematosus chorea. Clin. Rheumatol. 26, 2145–2147 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lesprit, P. et al. Prolonged remission of SLE-associated polyradiculoneuropathy after a single course of intravenous immunoglobulin. Scand. J. Rheumatol. 25, 177–179 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Aharon, A. et al. Successful treatment of early secondary myelofibrosis in SLE with IVIG. Lupus 6, 408–411 (1997).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Chetan, G., Mahadevan, S., Sulanthung, K. & Narayanan, P. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy of lupus pneumonitis. Indian J. Pediatr. 74, 1032–1033 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Levy, Y. et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment of lupus nephritis. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 29, 321–327 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Papo, T. et al. The sprectrum of reactive hemophagocytic syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 26, 927–930 (1999).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hahn, B. H. et al. American College of Rheumatology guidelines for screening, treatment, and management of lupus nephritis. Arthritis Care Res. 64, 797–808 (2012).
  Article Google Scholar
• Dooley, M. A., Aranow, C. & Ginzler, E. M. Review of ACR renal criteria in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 13, 857–860 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kasitanon, N., Magder, L. S. & Petri, M. Predictors of survival in systemic lupus erythematosus. Medicine (Baltimore) 85, 147–156 (2006).
  Article Google Scholar
• Alarcon, G. S. et al. Baseline characteristics of a multiethnic lupus cohort: PROFILE. Lupus 11, 95–101 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bernatsky, S. et al. Mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 54, 2550–2557 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cervera, R. et al. Morbidity and mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus during a 10-year period: a comparison of early and late manifestations in a cohort of 1,000 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 82, 299–308 (2003).
  Article Google Scholar
• Kaplan, A. A. & George, J. N. Treatment and prognosis of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura-hemolytic uremic syndrome in adults. Up ToDate [online], (2011).
  Google Scholar
• Jennekens, F. G. & Kater, L. The central nervous system in systemic lupus erythematosus. Part 1: clinical syndromes: a literature investigation. Rheumatology (Oxford) 41, 605–618 (2002).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• The American College of Rheumatology nomenclature and case definitions for neuropsychiatric lupus syndromes. Arthritis Rheum. 42, 599–608 (1999).
• Bonfa, E. et al. Association between lupus psychosis and anti-ribosomal P protein antibodies. N. Engl. J. Med. 317, 265–271 (1987).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Isshi, K. & Hirohata, S. Association of anti-ribosomal P protein antibodies with neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 39, 1483–1490 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Carbotte, R. M., Denburg, S. D. & Denburg, J. A. Cognitive deficit associated with rheumatic diseases: neuropsychological perspectives. Arthritis Rheum. 38, 1363–1374 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hanly, J. G., Hong, C., Smith, S. & Fisk, J. D. A prospective analysis of cognitive function and anticardiolipin antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 42, 728–734 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Omdal, R. et al. Neuropsychiatric disturbances in SLE are associated with antibodies against NMDA receptors. Eur. J. Neurol. 12, 392–398 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Conti, F. et al. Autoantibody profile in systemic lupus erythematosus with psychiatric manifestations: a role for anti-endothelial-cell antibodies. Arthritis Res. Ther. 6, R366–R372 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Lapteva, L. et al. Anti-_N_-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibodies, cognitive dysfunction, and depression in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 54, 2505–2514 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Harrison, M. J., Ravdin, L. D. & Lockshin, M. D. Relationship between serum NR2a antibodies and cognitive dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 54, 2515–2522 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• McLaurin, E. Y., Holliday, S. L., Williams, P. & Brey, R. L. Predictors of cognitive dysfunction in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurology 64, 297–303 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Schroeder, J. O., Euler, H. H. & Löffler, H. Synchronization of plasmapheresis and pulse cyclophosphamide in severe systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Intern. Med. 107, 344–346 (1987).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Neuwelt, C. M. et al. Role of intravenous cyclophosphamide in the treatment of severe neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Am. J. Med. 98, 32–41 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Boumpas, D. T. et al. Pulse cyclophosphamide for severe neuropsychiatric lupus. Q. J. Med. 81, 975–984 (1991).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Mok, C. C., Lau, C. S. & Wong, R. W. Treatment of lupus psychosis with oral cyclophosphamide followed by azathioprine maintenance: an open-label study. Am. J. Med. 115, 59–62 (2003).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Roenigk, H. H. Jr, Martin, J. S., Eichorn, P. & Gilliam, J. N. Discoid lupus erythematosus. Diagnostic features and evaluation of topical corticosteroid therapy. Cutis 25, 281–285 (1980).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Jessop, S., Whitelaw, D. A. & Delamere, F. M. Drugs for discoid lupus erythematosus. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. CD002954 (2009).
• Kuhn, A. et al. Efficacy of tacrolimus 0.1% ointment in cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, vehicle-controlled trial. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 65, 54–64 (2011).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Tzung, T. Y., Liu, Y. S. & Chang, H. W. Tacrolimus vs. clobetasol propionate in the treatment of facial cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a randomized, double-blind, bilateral comparison study. Br. J. Dermatol. 156, 191–192 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Gunasekera, V. et al. Refractory discoid lupus erythematosis of the eyelid successfully treated with intra-lesional triamcinolone. Eye (Lond.) 22, 1205–1206 (2008).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Ruzicka, T. et al. Treatment of cutaneous lupus erythematosus with acitretin and hydroxychloroquine. Br. J. Dermatol. 127, 513–518 (1992).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Chang, A. Y. et al. Response to antimalarial agents in cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a prospective analysis. Arch. Dermatol. 147, 1261–1267 (2011).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Carneiro, J. R. & Sato, E. I. Double blind, randomized, placebo controlled clinical trial of methotrexate in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 26, 1275–1279 (1999).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Newton, R. C. et al. Mechanism-oriented assessment of isotretinoin in chronic or subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Arch. Dermatol. 122, 170–176 (1986).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kreuter, A. et al. Mycophenolate sodium for subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus resistant to standard therapy. Br. J. Dermatol. 156, 1321–1327 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Gammon, B., Hansen, C. & Costner, M. I. Efficacy of mycophenolate mofetil in antimalarial-resistant cutaneous lupus erythematosus. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 65, 717–721 (2011).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lindskov, R. & Reymann, F. Dapsone in the treatment of cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Dermatologica 172, 214–217 (1986).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Braunstein, I. et al. Lenalidomide therapy in treatment-refractory cutaneous lupus erythematosus: histologic and circulating leukocyte profile and potential risk of a systemic lupus flare. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 66, 571–582 (2012).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cortés-Hernández, J., Avila, G., Vilardell-Tarrés, M. & Ordi-Ros, J. Efficacy and safety of lenalidomide for refractory cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res. Ther. 14, R265 (2012).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Goodfield, M., Davison, K. & Bowden, K. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) for therapy-resistant cutaneous lupus erythematosus (LE). J. Dermatolog. Treat. 15, 46–50 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Mamula, M. J., Fatenejad, S. & Craft, J. B cells process and present lupus autoantigens that initiate autoimmune T cell responses. J. Immunol. 152, 1453–1461 (1994).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Martin, F. & Chan, A. C. B cell immunobiology in disease: evolving concepts from the clinic. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 24, 467–496 (2006).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Boule, M. W. et al. Toll-like receptor 9-dependent and -independent dendritic cell activation by chromatin–immunoglobulin G complexes. J. Exp. Med. 199, 1631–1640 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar