Moser, M. & Murphy, K.M. Dendritic cell regulation of TH1-TH2 development. Nat. Immunol.1, 199–205 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Sallusto, F., Mackay, C.R. & Lanzavecchia, A. The role of chemokine receptors in primary, effector, and memory immune responses. Annu. Rev. Immunol.18, 593–620 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Campbell, J.J. & Butcher, E.C. Chemokines in tissue-specific and microenvironment-specific lymphocyte homing. Curr. Opin. Immunol.12, 336–341 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Sallusto, F., Lenig, D., Forster, R., Lipp, M. & Lanzavecchia, A. Two subsets of memory T lymphocytes with distinct homing potentials and effector functions. Nature401, 708–712 (1999). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Lanzavecchia, A. & Sallusto, F. Dynamics of T lymphocyte responses: intermediates, effectors and memory cells. Science290, 92–97 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Kim, C.H., Campbell, D.J. & Butcher, E.C. Nonpolarized memory T cells. Trends Immunol.22, 527–530 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Sad, S. & Mosmann, T.R. Single IL-2-secreting precursor CD4 T cell can develop into either Th1 or Th2 cytokine secretion phenotype. J. Immunol.153, 3514–3522 (1994). CAS Google Scholar
Sallusto, F., Lenig, D., Mackay, C.R. & Lanzavecchia, A. Flexible programs of chemokine receptor expression on human polarized T helper 1 and 2 lymphocytes. J. Exp. Med.187, 875–883 (1998). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Iezzi, G., Scotet, E., Scheidegger, D. & Lanzavecchia, A. The interplay between the duration of TCR and cytokine signalling determines T cell polarization. Eur. J. Immunol.29, 4092–4101 (1999). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Langenkamp, A., Messi, M., Lanzavecchia, A. & Sallusto, F. Kinetics of dendritic cell activation: impact on priming of TH1, TH2 and nonpolarized T cells. Nat. Immunol.1, 311–316 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Reinhardt, R.L., Khoruts, A., Merica, R., Zell, T. & Jenkins, M.K. Visualizing the generation of memory CD4 T cells in the whole body. Nature410, 101–105 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Wang, X. & Mosmann, T. In vivo priming of CD4 T cells that produce interleukin (IL)-2 but not IL-4 or interferon (IFN)-γ, and can subsequently differentiate into IL-4- or IFN-γ-secreting cells. J. Exp. Med.194, 1069–1080 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Lauvau, G. et al. Priming of memory but not effector CD8 T cells by a killed bacterial vaccine. Science294, 1735–1739 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Masopust, D., Vezys, V., Marzo, A.L. & Lefrancois, L. Preferential localization of effector memory cells in nonlymphoid tissue. Science291, 2413–2417 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Champagne, P. et al. Skewed maturation of memory HIV-specific CD8 T lymphocytes. Nature410, 106–111 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Hislop, A.D., Annels, N.E., Gudgeon, N.H., Leese, A.M. & Rickinson, A.B. Epitope-specific evolution of human CD8+ T cell responses from primary to persistent phases of Epstein-Barr virus infection. J. Exp. Med.195, 893–905 (2002). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Murphy, K.M. et al. Signaling and transcription in T helper development. Annu. Rev. Immunol.18, 451–494 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Glimcher, L.H. & Murphy, K.M. Lineage commitment in the immune system: the T helper lymphocyte grows up. Genes Dev.14, 1693–1711 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Reiner, S.L. Helper T cell differentiation, inside and out. Curr. Opin. Immunol.13, 351–355 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Ho, I.C. & Glimcher, L.H. Transcription: tantalizing times for T cells. Cell109 (Suppl.) 109–120 (2002). Article Google Scholar
Rao, A. & Avni, O. Molecular aspects of T-cell differentiation. Br. Med. Bull.56, 969–984 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Szabo, S.J. et al. A novel transcription factor, T-bet, directs Th1 lineage commitment. Cell100, 655–669 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Mullen, A.C. et al. Role of T-bet in commitment of TH1 cells before IL-12-dependent selection. Science292, 1907–1910 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Afkarian, M. et al. T-bet is a STAT1-induced regulator of IL-12R expression in naive CD4+ T cells. Nat. Immunol.13, 549–557 (2002). Article Google Scholar
Szabo, S.J. et al. Distinct effects of T-bet in TH1 lineage commitment and IFN-γ production in CD4 and CD8 T cells. Science295, 338–342 (2002). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Zheng, W. & Flavell, R.A. The transcription factor GATA-3 is necessary and sufficient for Th2 cytokine gene expression in CD4 T cells. Cell89, 587–596 (1997). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Ho, I.C., Hodge, M.R., Rooney, J.W. & Glimcher, L.H. The proto-oncogene c-maf is responsible for tissue-specific expression of interleukin-4. Cell85, 973–983 (1996). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Agarwal, S. & Rao, A. Modulation of chromatin structure regulates cytokine gene expression during T cell differentiation. Immunity9, 765–775 (1998). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Takemoto, N. et al. Cutting edge: chromatin remodeling at the IL-4/IL-13 intergenic regulatory region for Th2-specific cytokine gene cluster. J. Immunol.165, 6687–6691 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Lee, G.R., Fields, P.E. & Flavell, R.A. Regulation of IL-4 gene expression by distal regulatory elements and GATA-3 at the chromatin level. Immunity14, 447–459 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Agarwal, S., Avni, O. & Rao, A. Cell-type-restricted binding of the transcription factor NFAT to a distal IL-4 enhancer in vivo. Immunity12, 643–652 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Mohrs, M. et al. Deletion of a coordinate regulator of type 2 cytokine expression in mice. Nat. Immunol.2, 842–847 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Kim, J.I., Ho, I.C., Grusby, M.J. & Glimcher, L.H. The transcription factor c-Maf controls the production of interleukin-4 but not other Th2 cytokines. Immunity10, 745–751 (1999). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Szabo, S.J., Dighe, A.S., Gubler, U. & Murphy, K.M. Regulation of the interleukin (IL)-12R beta 2 subunit expression in developing T helper 1 (Th1) and Th2 cells. J. Exp. Med.185, 817–824 (1997). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Rogge, L. et al. Selective expression of an interleukin-12 receptor component by human T helper 1 cells. J. Exp. Med.185, 825–831 (1997). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Grogan, J.L. et al. Early transcription and silencing of cytokine genes underlie polarization of T helper cell subsets. Immunity14, 205–215 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Paliard, X. et al. Simultaneous production of IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ by activated human CD4+ and CD8+ T cell clones. J. Immunol.141, 849–855 (1988). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Openshaw, P. et al. Heterogeneity of intracellular cytokine synthesis at the single-cell level in polarized T helper 1 and T helper 2 populations. J. Exp. Med.182, 1357–1367 (1995). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Smale, S.T. & Fisher, A.G. Chromatin structure and gene regulation in the immune system. Annu. Rev. Immunol.20, 427–462 (2002). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Tse, C., Sera, T., Wolffe, A.P. & Hansen, J.C. Disruption of higher-order folding by core histone acetylation dramatically enhances transcription of nucleosomal arrays by RNA polymerase III. Mol. Cell Biol.18, 4629–4638 (1998). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Lee, D.Y., Hayes, J.J., Pruss, D. & Wolffe, A.P. A positive role for histone acetylation in transcription factor access to nucleosomal DNA. Cell72, 73–84 (1993). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Vettese-Dadey, M. et al. Acetylation of histone H4 plays a primary role in enhancing transcription factor binding to nucleosomal DNA in vitro. EMBO J.15, 2508–2518 (1996). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Vitolo, J.M., Thiriet, C. & Hayes, J.J. The H3-H4 N-terminal tail domains are the primary mediators of transcription factor IIIA access to 5S DNA within a nucleosome. Mol. Cell Biol.20, 2167–2175 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Dhalluin, C. et al. Structure and ligand of a histone acetyltransferase bromodomain. Nature399, 491–496 (1999). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Jacobson, R.H., Ladurner, A.G., King, D.S. & Tjian, R. Structure and function of a human TAFII250 double bromodomain module. Science288, 1422–1425 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Ekwall, K., Olsson, T., Turner, B.M., Cranston, G. & Allshire, R.C. Transient inhibition of histone deacetylation alters the structural and functional imprint at fission yeast centromeres. Cell91, 1021–1032 (1997). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Cavalli, G. & Paro, R. Epigenetic inheritance of active chromatin after removal of the main transactivator. Science286, 955–958 (1999). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Avni, O. et al. TH cell differentiation is accompanied by dynamic changes in histone acetylation of cytokine genes. Nat. Immunol.10, 643–651 (2002). Article Google Scholar
Fields, P.E., Kim, S.T. & Flavell, R.A. Cutting edge: changes in histone acetylation at the IL-4 and IFN-γ loci accompany Th1/Th2 differentiation. J. Immunol.169, 647–650 (2002). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Loetscher, P. et al. CCR5 is characteristic of Th1 lymphocytes. Nature391, 344–345 (1998). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Bonecchi, R. et al. Differential expression of chemokine receptors and chemotactic responsiveness of type 1 T helper cells (Th1s) and Th2s. J. Exp. Med.187, 129–134 (1998). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Nagata, K. et al. Selective expression of a novel surface molecule by human Th2 cells in vivo. J. Immunol.162, 1278–1286 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Cosmi, L. et al. CRTH2 is the most reliable marker for the detection of circulating human type 2 Th and type 2 T cytotoxic cells in health and disease. Eur. J. Immunol.30, 2972–2979 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Noben-Trauth, N., Hu-Li, J. & Paul, W.E. IL-4 secreted from individual naive CD4+ T cells acts in an autocrine manner to induce Th2 differentiation. Eur. J. Immunol.32, 1428–1433 (2002). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Jenuwein, T. & Allis, C.D. Translating the histone code. Science293, 1074–1080 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Murphy, E. et al. Reversibility of T helper 1 and 2 populations is lost after long-term stimulation. J. Exp. Med.183, 901–913 (1996). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Smits, H.H. et al. IL-12-induced reversal of human Th2 cells is accompanied by full restoration of IL-12 responsiveness and loss of GATA-3 expression. Eur. J. Immunol.31, 1055–1065 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Iwasaki, M. et al. Association of a new-type prostaglandin D2 receptor CRTH2 with circulating T helper 2 cells in patients with atopic dermatitis. J. Invest. Derm.119, 609–616 (2002). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Annunziato, F. et al. Reversal of human allergen-specific CRTH2+ TH2 cells by IL-12 or the PS-DSP30 oligodeoxynucleotide. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.108, 815–821 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Breitfeld, D. et al. Follicular B helper T cells express CXC chemokine receptor 5, localize to B cell follicles, and support immunoglobulin production. J. Exp. Med.192, 1545–1552 (2000). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Kim, C.H. et al. Rules of chemokine receptor association with T cell polarization in vivo. J. Clin. Invest.108, 1331–1339 (2001). ArticleCAS Google Scholar