Social learning of fear (original) (raw)

References

  1. Pavlov, I.P. Conditioned Reflexes (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1927).
    Google Scholar
  2. Phelps, E.A. & LeDoux, J.E. Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: from animal models to human behavior. Neuron 48, 175–187 (2005).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  3. Amaral, D.G. Amygdalohippocampal and amygdalocortical projections in the primate brain. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 203, 3–17 (1986).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  4. LeDoux, J.E., Farb, C. & Ruggiero, D.A. Topographic organization of neurons in the acoustic thalamus that project to the amygdala. J. Neurosci. 10, 1043–1054 (1990).
    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  5. Romanski, L.M., Clugnet, M.C., Bordi, F. & LeDoux, J.E. Somatosensory and auditory convergence in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala. Behav. Neurosci. 107, 444–450 (1993).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  6. Quirk, G.J., Armony, J.L. & LeDoux, J.E. Fear conditioning enhances different temporal components of tone-evoked spike trains in auditory cortex and lateral amygdala. Neuron 19, 613–624 (1997).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  7. Blair, H.T., Schafe, G.E., Bauer, E.P., Rodrigues, S.M. & LeDoux, J.E. Synaptic plasticity in the lateral amygdala: a cellular hypothesis of fear conditioning. Learn. Mem. 8, 229–242 (2001).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  8. LeDoux, J.E. & Gorman, J.M. A call to action: overcoming anxiety through active coping. Am. J. Psychiatry 158, 1953–1955 (2001).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  9. Price, J.L. & Amaral, D.G. An autoradiographic study of the projections of the central nucleus of the monkey amygdala. J. Neurosci. 1, 1242–1259 (1981).
    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  10. Davis, M. & Whalen, P.J. The amygdala: vigilance and emotion. Mol. Psychiatry 6, 13–34 (2001).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  11. Simon, H., Le Moal, M. & Calas, A. Efferents and afferents of the ventral tegmental-A10 region studied after local injection of [3H]leucine and horseradish peroxidase. Brain Res. 178, 17–40 (1979).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  12. Hopkins, D.A. & Holstege, G.G. Amygdaloid projections to the mesencephalon, pons and medulla oblongata in the cat. Exp. Brain Res. 32, 529–547 (1978).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  13. Everitt, B.J. & Robbins, T.W. Amygdala-ventral striatal interactions and reward-related processes. In The Amygdala: Neurobiological Aspects of Emotion, Memory, and Mental Dysfunction (ed. Aggleton, J.P.) 401–429 (Wiley-Liss, New York, 1992).
    Google Scholar
  14. LaBar, K.S., LeDoux, J.E., Spencer, D.D. & Phelps, E.A. Impaired fear conditioning following unilateral temporal lobectomy in humans. J. Neurosci. 15, 6846–6855 (1995).
    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  15. Bechara, A. et al. Double dissociation of conditioning and declarative knowledge relative to the amygdala and hippocampus in humans. Science 269, 1115–1118 (1995).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  16. LaBar, K.S. & Phelps, E.A. Reinstatement of conditioned fear in humans is context dependent and impaired in amnesia. Behav. Neurosci. 119, 677–686 (2005).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  17. Ochsner, K.N. & Gross, J.J. The cognitive control of emotion. Trends Cogn. Sci. 9, 242–249 (2005).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  18. Robbins, T.W. Chemistry of the mind: neurochemical modulation of prefrontal cortical function. J. Comp. Neurol. 493, 140–146 (2005).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  19. Quirk, G.J., Garcia, R. & Gonzalez-Lima, F. Prefrontal mechanisms in extinction of conditioned fear. Biol. Psychiatry 60, 337–343 (2006).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  20. Phelps, E.A., Delgado, M.R., Nearing, K.I. & LeDoux, J.E. Extinction learning in humans: role of the amygdala and vmPFC. Neuron 43, 897–905 (2004).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  21. Öhman, A. & Soares, J. On the automatic nature of phobic fear: conditioned electrodermal responses to masked fear-relevant stimuli. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 102, 121–132 (1993).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  22. Öhman, A. & Mineka, S. Fears, phobias, and preparedness: toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychol. Rev. 108, 483–522 (2001).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  23. Morris, J.S., Öhman, A. & Dolan, R.J. Conscious and unconscious emotional learning in the amygdala. Nature 393, 467–470 (1998).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  24. Cook, E.W., Hodes, R.L. & Lang, P.J. Preparedness and phobia: effects of stimulus content on human visceral conditioning. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 95, 195–207 (1986).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  25. Olsson, A., Ebert, J.P., Banaji, M.R. & Phelps, E.A. The role of social groups in the persistence of learned fear. Science 309, 785–787 (2005).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  26. Hauser, M.D. The Evolution of Communication (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 1996).
    Google Scholar
  27. Thorpe, W.H. Learning and Instinct in Animals (2nd ed.) (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 1963).
    Google Scholar
  28. Zajonc, R.B. Social facilitation. Science 149, 269–274 (1965).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  29. Galef, B.G. & Laland, K.N. Social learning in animals: empirical studies and theoretical models. BioSci 55, 489–499 (2005).
    Article Google Scholar
  30. Heyes, C.M. Imitation without perspective-taking. Behav. Brain Sci. 16, 524–525 (1993).
    Article Google Scholar
  31. Whiten, A., Horner, V. & de Waal, F.B. Conformity to cultural norms of tool use in chimpanzees. Nature 437, 737–740 (2005).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  32. Keller, M., Perrin, G., Meurisse, M., Ferreira, G. & Levy, F. Cortical and medial amygdala are both involved in the formation of olfactory offspring memory in sheep. Eur. J. Neurosci. 20, 3433–3441 (2004).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  33. Curio, E. Cultural transmission of enemy recognition. In Social Learning: Psychological and Biological Perspectives (eds. Zentall, R.E. & Galef, B.G. Jr.) 75–97 (Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, USA, 1988).
    Google Scholar
  34. Kavaliers, M., Choleris, E. & Colwell, D.D. Learning from others to cope with biting flies: social learning of fear-induced conditioned analgesia and active avoidance. Behav. Neurosci. 115, 661–674 (2001).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  35. John, E.R., Chesler, P., Bartlett, F. & Victor, I. Observation learning in cats. Science 59, 1489–1491 (1968).
    Article Google Scholar
  36. Munksgaard, L., DePassille, A.M., Rushen, J., Herskin, M.S. & Kristensen, A.M. Dairy cows' fear of people: social learning, milk yield and behaviour at milking. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 73, 15–26 (2001).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  37. Berber, S.M. Conditioning through vicarious instigation. Psychol. Rev. 69, 450–466 (1962).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  38. Hygge, S. & Ohman, A. Modeling processes in the acquisition of fears: vicarious electrodermal conditioning to fear-relevant stimuli. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 36, 271–279 (1978).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  39. Mineka, S. & Cook, M. Mechanisms involved in the observational conditioning of fear. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 122, 23–38 (1993).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  40. Mineka, S., Davidson, M., Cook, M. & Keir, R. Observational conditioning of snake fear in rhesus monkey. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 93, 355–372 (1984).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  41. Olsson, A. & Phelps, E.A. Learned fear of “unseen” faces after Pavlovian, observational, and instructed fear. Psychol. Sci. 15, 822–828 (2004).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  42. Olsson, A., Nearing, K.I. & Phelps, E.A. Learning fears by observing others: the neural systems of social fear transmission. Soc. Cog. Affect. Neurosci. 2, 3–11 (2007).
    Article Google Scholar
  43. Vaughan, K.B. & Lanzetta, J.T. Vicarious instigation and conditioning of facial expressive and autonomic responses to a model's expressive display of pain. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 38, 909–923 (1980).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  44. Ekman, P. Emotion in the Human Face (Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1982).
    Google Scholar
  45. Rolls, E.T. The Brain and Emotion (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1999).
    Google Scholar
  46. Gerull, F.C. & Rapee, R.M. Mother knows best: effects of maternal modeling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance behavior in toddlers. Behav. Res. Ther. 40, 279–287 (2002).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  47. Bandura, A. Social Learning Theory (General Learning Press, New York, 1977).
    Google Scholar
  48. Rachman, S. The conditioning theory of fear acquisition: a critical examination. Behav. Res. Ther. 19, 439–447 (1977).
    Google Scholar
  49. Bandura, A. & Menlove, F.L. Factors determining vicarious extinction of avoidance behavior through symbolic modeling. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 8, 99–108 (1968).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  50. Mineka, S. & Zinbarg, R. A contemporary learning theory perspective on the etiology of anxiety disorders: it's not what you thought it was. Am. Psychol. 61, 10–26 (2006).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  51. Lanzetta, J.T. & Englis, B.G. Expectations of cooperation and competition and their effects on observers' vicarious emotional responses. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 56, 543–554 (1989).
    Article Google Scholar
  52. Singer, T. et al. Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others. Nature 439, 466–469 (2006).
    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  53. Bennet, G., Galef, J.R. & Durlach, P.J. Absence of blocking, overshadowing, latent inhibition in social enhancement of food preferences. Ann. Learn. Behav. 21, 214–220 (1993).
    Article Google Scholar
  54. White, D.J. & Galef, B.J. Social influence on avoidance of dangerous stimuli by rats. Ann. Learn. Behav. 26, 433–438 (1998).
    Article Google Scholar
  55. Lanzetta, J.T. & Orr, S.P. Influence of facial expressions on the classical conditioning of fear. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 39, 1081–1087 (1980).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  56. Amaral, D.G. The amygdala, social behavior, and danger detection. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1000, 337–347 (2003).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  57. Ross, R.S. & Eichenbaum, H. Dynamics of hippocampal and cortical activation during consolidation of a nonspatial memory. J. Neurosci. 26, 4852–4859 (2006).
    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  58. Squires, A.S., Peddle, R., Milway, S.J. & Harley, C.W. Cytotoxic lesions of the hippocampus do not impair social recognition memory in socially housed rats. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 85, 95–101 (2005).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  59. Schneider, M. & Koch, M. Deficient social and play behavior in juvenile and adult rats after neonatal cortical lesion: effects of chronic pubertal cannabinoid treatment. Neuropsychopharmacology 30, 944–957 (2005).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  60. Hooker, C.I., Germine, L.T., Knight, R.T. & D'Esposito, M. Amygdala response to facial expressions reflects emotional learning. J. Neurosci. 26, 8915–8922 (2006).
    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  61. Rolls, E.T., Tovée, M.J., Purcell, D.G., Stewart, A.L. & Azzopardi, P. The responses of neurons in the temporal cortex of primates and face identification and detection. Exp. Brain Res. 101, 473–484 (1994).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  62. Barton, R.A., Aggleton, J.P. & Grenyer, R. Evolutionary coherence of the mammalian amygdala. Proc. Biol. Sci. 270, 539–543 (2003).
    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  63. Young, M.P., Scannell, J.W., Burns, G.A. & Blakemore, C. Analysis of connectivity: neural systems in the cerebral cortex. Rev. Neurosci. 5, 227–250 (1994).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  64. Langford, D.J. et al. Social modulation of pain as evidence for empathy in mice. Science 312, 1967–1970 (2006).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  65. Masserman, J.H., Wechkin, S. & Terris, W. “Altruistic” behavior in rhesus monkeys. Am. J. Psychiatry 121, 584–585 (1964).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  66. Hauser, M. et al. Give unto others: genetically unrelated cotton-top tamarin monkeys preferentially give food to those who altruistically give food back. Proc. Biol. Sci. 270, 2363–2370 (2003).
    Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  67. Gallese, V., Keysers, C. & Rizzolatti, G. A unifying view of the basis of social cognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 8, 396–403 (2004).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  68. Preston, S.D. & de Waal, F.B. Empathy: its ultimate and proximate bases. Behav. Brain Sci. 25, 1–20 (2002).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  69. Whalen, P.J. et al. Masked presentations of emotional facial expressions modulate amygdala activity without explicit knowledge. J. Neurosci. 18, 411–418 (1998).
    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  70. Kim, H. et al. Contextual modulation of amygdala responsivity to surprised faces. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 16, 1730–1745 (2004).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  71. Peyron, R., Laurent, B. & Garcia-Larrea, L. Functional imaging of brain responses to pain. A review and meta-analysis. Neurophysiol. Clin. 30, 263–288 (2000).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  72. Critchley, H.D. Neural mechanisms of autonomic, affective, and cognitive integration. J. Comp. Neurol. 493, 154–166 (2005).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  73. Jackson, P.L., Meltzoff, A.N. & Decety, J. How do we perceive the pain of others? A window into the neural processes involved in empathy. Neuroimage 24, 771–779 (2005).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  74. Morrison, I., Lloyd, D., di Pellegrino, G. & Roberts, N. Responses to pain in anterior cingulate cortex: is empathy a multisensory issue? Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 4, 270–278 (2004).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  75. Singer, T. et al. Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain. Science 303, 1157–1162 (2004).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  76. Lamm, C., Batson, C.D. & Decety, J. The neural substrate of human empathy: effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 19, 42–58 (2007).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  77. Ochsner, K.N. et al. Reflecting upon feelings: an fMRI study of neural systems supporting the attribution of emotion to self and other. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 16, 1746–1772 (2004).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  78. Mitchell, J.P., Heatherton, T.F. & Macrae, C.N. Distinct neural systems subserve person and object knowledge. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 15238–15243 (2002).
    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  79. Amodio, D.M. & Frith, C.D. Meeting of minds: the medial frontal cortex and social cognition. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 7, 268–277 (2006).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  80. Myers, R.E., Swett, C. & Miller, M. Loss of social group affinity following prefrontal lesions in free-ranging macaques. Brain Res. 64, 257–269 (1973).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  81. Beer, J.S., Heerey, E.A., Keltner, D., Scabini, D. & Knight, R.T. The regulatory function of self-conscious emotion: insights from patients with orbitofrontal damage. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 85, 594–604 (2003).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  82. Ongür, D., Ferry, A.T. & Price, J.L. Architectonic subdivision of the human orbital and medial prefrontal cortex. J. Comp. Neurol. 460, 425–449 (2003).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  83. Gilbert, S.J. et al. Functional specialization within rostral prefrontal cortex (area 10): a meta-analysis. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 18, 932–948 (2006).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  84. Kosslyn, S.M. & Thompson, W.L. When is early visual cortex activated during visual mental imagery? Psychol. Bull. 129, 723–746 (2003).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  85. Tulving, E. Episodic memory: from mind to brain. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 53, 1–25 (2002).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  86. Hassabis, D., Kumaran, D., Vann, S.D. & Maguire, E.A. Patients with hippocampal amnesia cannot imagine new experiences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104, 1726–1735 (2007).
    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  87. Schacter, D.L. & Addis, D.R. The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: remembering the past and imagining the future. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 362, 773–786 (2007).
    Article Google Scholar
  88. Buckner, R.L. & Carroll, D.C. Self-projection and the brain. Trends Cogn. Sci. 11, 49–57 (2007).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  89. King, N.J., Gullone, E. & Ollendick, T.H. Etiology of childhood phobias: current status of Rachman's three pathways theory. Behav. Res. Ther. 36, 297–309 (1998).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  90. Field, A.P., Argyris, N.G. & Knowles, K.A. Who's afraid of the big bad wolf: a prospective paradigm to test Rachman's indirect pathways in children. Behav. Res. Ther. 39, 1259–1276 (2001).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  91. Grillon, C., Ameli, R., Merikangas, K., Woods, S.W. & Davis, M. Fear-potentiated startle: effects of anticipatory anxiety on the acoustic blink reflex. Psychophysiology 28, 588–595 (1991).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  92. Hugdahl, K. & Öhman, A. Effects of instruction acquisition and extinction of electrodermal responses to fear-relevant stimuli. J. Exp. Psychol. [Hum. Learn.] 3, 608–618 (1977).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  93. Phelps, E.A. et al. Activation of the amygdala by cognitive representations of fear. Nat. Neurosci. 4, 437–441 (2001).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  94. Shi, C. & Davis, M. Pain pathways involved in fear conditioning measured with fear-potentiated startle: lesion studies. J. Neurosci. 19, 420–430 (1999).
    Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
  95. Gazzaniga, M.S. & LeDoux, J.E. The Integrated Mind (Plenum Press, New York, 1978).
    Book Google Scholar
  96. Plotkin, H.C. & Odling-Smee, F.J. A multiple level model of evolution and its implications for sociobiology. Behav. Brain Sci. 4, 225–268 (1981).
    Article Google Scholar
  97. Danchin, E., Giraldeau, L.A., Valone, T.J. & Wagner, R.H. Public information: from nosy neighbors to cultural evolution. Science 305, 487–491 (2004).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  98. Büchel, C., Morris, J., Dolan, R.J. & Friston, K.J. Brain systems mediating aversive conditioning: an event-related fMRI study. Neuron 20, 947–957 (1998).
    Article PubMed Google Scholar
  99. LaBar, K.S., Gatenby, J.C., Gore, J.C., LeDoux, J.E. & Phelps, E.A. Human amygdala activation during conditioned fear acquisition and extinction: a mixed-trial fMRI study. Neuron 20, 937–945 (1998).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
  100. Schultz, W. et al. A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science 275, 1593–1599 (1997).
    Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar

Download references