The role of antimalarial agents in the treatment of SLE and lupus nephritis (original) (raw)

• Schmajuk, G., Yazdany, J., Trupin, L. & Yelin, E. Hydroxychloroquine treatment in a community-based cohort of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care Res. (Hoboken) 62, 386–392 (2010).
  Article Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza, G., Ramos-Casals, M., Brito-Zeron, P. & Khamashta, M. A. Clinical efficacy and side effects of antimalarials in systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 69, 20–28 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wallace, D. J. The history of antimalarials. Lupus 5 (Suppl. 1), S2–S3 (1996).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Tett, S. E., Cutler, D. J., Day, R. O. & Brown, K. F. Bioavailability of hydroxychloroquine tablets in healthy volunteers. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 27, 771–779 (1989).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Furst, D. E. Pharmacokinetics of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine during treatment of rheumatic diseases. Lupus 5 (Suppl. 1), S11–S15 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kalia, S. & Dutz, J. P. New concepts in antimalarial use and mode of action in dermatology. Dermatol. Ther. 20, 160–174 (2007).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• McChesney, E. W. Animal toxicity and pharmacokinetics of hydroxychloroquine sulfate. Am. J. Med. 75, 11–18 (1983).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Leecharoen, S., Wangkaew, S. & Louthrenoo, W. Ocular side effects of chloroquine in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus and scleroderma. J. Med. Assoc. Thai. 90, 52–58 (2007).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Barré, P. E., Gascon-Barré, M., Meakins, J. L. & Goltzman, D. Hydroxychloroquine treatment of hypercalcemia in a patient with sarcoidosis undergoing hemodialysis. Am. J. Med. 82, 1259–1262 (1987).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Fox, R. Anti-malarial drugs: possible mechanisms of action in autoimmune disease and prospects for drug development. Lupus 5 (Suppl. 1), S4–S10 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ermann, J. & Bermas, B. L. The biology behind the new therapies for SLE. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 61, 2113–2119 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• van den Borne, B. E., Dijkmans, B. A., de Rooij, H. H., le Cessie, S. & Verweij, C. L. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine equally affect tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 6, and interferon-gamma production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J. Rheumatol. 24, 55–60 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Karres, I. et al. Chloroquine inhibits proinflammatory cytokine release into human whole blood. Am. J. Physiol. 274, R1058–R1064 (1998).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wozniacka, A., Lesiak, A., Narbutt, J., McCauliffe, D. P. & Sysa-Jedrzejowska, A. Chloroquine treatment influences proinflammatory cytokine levels in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Lupus 15, 268–275 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Jang, C. H., Choi, J. H., Byun, M. S. & Jue, D. M. Chloroquine inhibits production of TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 from lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human monocytes/macrophages by different modes. Rheumatology (Oxford) 45, 703–710 (2006).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Jeong, J. Y. & Jue, D. M. Chloroquine inhibits processing of tumor necrosis factor in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. J. Immunol. 158, 4901–4907 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sperber, K. et al. Selective regulation of cytokine secretion by hydroxychloroquine: inhibition of interleukin 1 alpha (IL-1-alpha) and IL-6 in human monocytes and T cells. J. Rheumatol. 20, 803–808 (1993).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Weber, S. M., Chen, J. M. & Levitz, S. M. Inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling by chloroquine. J. Immunol. 168, 5303–5309 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Löffler, B. M., Bohn, E., Hesse, B. & Kunze, H. Effects of antimalarial drugs on phospholipase A and lysophospholipase activities in plasma membrane, mitochondrial, microsomal and cytosolic subcellular fractions of rat liver. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 835, 448–455 (1985).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Kim, W. U. et al. Hydroxychloroquine potentiates Fas-mediated apoptosis of rheumatoid synoviocytes. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 144, 503–511 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Potvin, F., Petitclerc, E., Marceau, F. & Poubelle, P. E. Mechanisms of action of antimalarials in inflammation: induction of apoptosis in human endothelial cells. J. Immunol. 158, 1872–1879 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wozniacka, A. et al. The influence of antimalarial treatment on IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha mRNA expression on UVB-irradiated skin in systemic lupus erythematosus. Br. J. Dermatol. 159, 1124–1130 (2008).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hurst, N. P., French, J. K., Gorjatschko, L. & Betts, W. H. Studies on the mechanism of inhibition of chemotactic tripeptide stimulated human neutrophil polymorphonuclear leucocyte superoxide production by chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 46, 750–756 (1987).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Nguyen, T. Q., Capra, J. D. & Sontheimer, R. D. 4-Aminoquinoline antimalarials enhance UV-B induced c-jun transcriptional activation. Lupus 7, 148–153 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lesiak, A. et al. Effect of chloroquine phosphate treatment on serum MMP-9 and TIMP-1 levels in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 19, 683–688 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lim, E. J. et al. Toll-like receptor 9 dependent activation of MAPK and NF-kB is required for the CpG ODN-induced matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression. Exp. Mol. Med. 39, 239–245 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wallace, D. J., Linker-Israeli, M., Metzger, A. L. & Stecher, V. J. The relevance of antimalarial therapy with regard to thrombosis, hypercholesterolemia and cytokines in SLE. Lupus 2 (Suppl. 1), S13–S15 (1993).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Toubi, E. et al. The reduction of serum B-lymphocyte activating factor levels following quinacrine add-on therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand. J. Immunol. 63, 299–303 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Dubois, E. L. Antimalarials in the management of discoid and systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 8, 33–51 (1978).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Dubois, E. L. Quinacrine (atabrine) in treatment of systemic and discoid lupus erythematosus. AMA Arch. Intern. Med. 94, 131–141 (1954).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Rudnicki, R. D., Gresham, G. E. & Rothfield, N. F. The efficacy of antimalarials in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 2, 323–330 (1975).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• [No authors listed] A randomized study of the effect of withdrawing hydroxychloroquine sulfate in systemic lupus erythematosus. The Canadian Hydroxychloroquine Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 324, 150–154 (1991).
• Meinão, I. M., Sato, E. I., Andrade, L. E., Ferraz, M. B. & Atra, E. Controlled trial with chloroquine diphosphate in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 5, 237–241 (1996).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Alarcón, G. S. et al. Effect of hydroxychloroquine on the survival of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: data from LUMINA, a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA L). Ann. Rheum. Dis. 66, 1168–1172 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Fessler, B. J. et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in three ethnic groups: XVI. Association of hydroxychloroquine use with reduced risk of damage accrual. Arthritis Rheum. 52, 1473–1480 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Molad, Y. et al. Protective effect of hydroxychloroquine in systemic lupus erythematosus. Prospective long-term study of an Israeli cohort. Lupus 11, 356–361 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Shinjo, S. K. et al. Antimalarial treatment may have a time-dependent effect on lupus survival: data from a multinational Latin American inception cohort. Arthritis Rheum. 62, 855–862 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Westlake, S. L. & Edwards C. J. Anti-malarials and lupus in West Africa use and lupus in Africans. Lupus 18, 193–195 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hodis, H. N., Quismorio, F. P. Jr, Wickham, E. & Blankenhorn, D. H. The lipid, lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein effects of hydroxychloroquine in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 20, 661–665 (1993).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Petri, M., Lakatta, C., Magder, L. & Goldman, D. Effect of prednisone and hydroxychloroquine on coronary artery disease risk factors in systemic lupus erythematosus: a longitudinal data analysis. Am. J. Med. 96, 254–259 (1994).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Tam, L. S., Gladman, D. D., Hallett, D. C., Rahman, P. & Urowitz, M. B. Effect of antimalarial agents on the fasting lipid profile in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 27, 2142–2145 (2000).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Borba, E. F. & Bonfá, E. Longterm beneficial effect of chloroquine diphosphate on lipoprotein profile in lupus patients with and without steroid therapy. J. Rheumatol. 28, 780–785 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sachet, J. C. et al. Chloroquine increases low-density lipoprotein removal from plasma in systemic lupus patients. Lupus 16, 273–278 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cardoso, C. R., Signorelli, F. V., Papi, J. A. & Salles, G. F. Prevalence and factors associated with dyslipoproteinemias in Brazilian systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Rheumatol. Int. 28, 323–327 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Bevan, A. P., Christensen, J. R., Tikerpae, J. & Smith, G. D. Chloroquine augments the binding of insulin to its receptor. Biochem. J. 311, 787–795 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Petri, M. Hydroxychloroquine use in the Baltimore Lupus Cohort: effects on lipids, glucose and thrombosis. Lupus 5 (Suppl. 1), S16–S22 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Rekedal, L. R. et al. Changes in glycosylated hemoglobin after initiation of hydroxychloroquine or methotrexate treatment in diabetes patients with rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Rheum. 62, 3569–3573 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Penn, S. K. et al. Hydroxychloroquine and glycemia in women with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 37, 1136–1142 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Gerstein, H. C., Thorpe, K. E., Taylor, D. W. & Haynes, R. B. The effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who are refractory to sulfonylureas—a randomzed trial. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 55, 209–219 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bellomio, V. et al. Metabolic syndrome in Argentinean patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 18, 1019–1025 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Razani, B., Feng, C. & Semenkovich, C. F. p53 is required for chloroquine-induced atheroprotection but not insulin sensitization. J. Lipid Res. 51, 1738–1746 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Roman, M. J. et al. Prevalence and correlates of accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 349, 2399–2406 (2003).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Zhang, C. Y. et al. Evaluation of risk factors that contribute to high prevalence of premature atherosclerosis in Chinese premenopausal systemic lupus erythematosus patients. J. Clin. Rheumatol. 15, 111–116 (2009).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Souza, A. W., Hatta, F. S., Miranda, F. Jr & Sato, E. I. Atherosclerotic plaque in carotid arteries in systemic lupus erythematosus: frequency and associated risk factors. Sao Paulo Med. J. 123, 137–142 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Von Feldt, J. M. et al. Homocysteine levels and disease duration independently correlate with coronary artery calcification in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 54, 2220–2227 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Selzer, F. et al. Comparison of risk factors for vascular disease in the carotid artery and aorta in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 50, 151–159 (2004).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Selzer, F. et al. Vascular stiffness in women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Hypertension 37, 1075–1082 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Tanay, A. et al. Vascular elasticity of systemic lupus erythematosus patients is associated with steroids and hydroxychloroquine treatment. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1108, 24–34 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bessant, R. et al. Prevalence of conventional and lupus-specific risk factors for cardiovascular disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a case-control study. Arthritis Rheum. 55, 892–899 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Urowitz, M. B. et al. Atherosclerotic vascular events in a multinational inception cohort of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care Res. (Hoboken) 62, 881–887 (2010).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza, G. et al. Antimalarials may influence the risk of malignancy in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 66, 815–817 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Sisó, A. et al. Previous antimalarial therapy in patients diagnosed with lupus nephritis: Influence on outcomes and survival. Lupus 17, 281–288 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza, G. et al. Effect of antimalarials on thrombosis and survival in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 15, 577–583 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Jung, H. et al. The protective effect of antimalarial drugs on thrombovascular events in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 62, 863–868 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Tsakonas, E. et al. A long-term study of hydroxychloroquine withdrawal on exacerbations in systemic lupus erythematosus. The Canadian Hydroxychloroquine Study Group. Lupus 7, 80–85 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pons-Estel, G. J. et al. Protective effect of hydroxychloroquine on renal damage in patients with lupus nephritis: LXV, data from a multiethnic US cohort. Arthritis Rheum. 61, 830–839 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Vlad, S. C. Protective effect of hydroxychloroquine on renal damage may be biased: comment on the article by Pons-Estel et al. Arthritis Rheum. 61, 1614 (2009).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Vinet, E., Bernatsky, S. & Suissa, S. Have some beneficial effects of hydroxychloroquine been overestimated? Potential biases in observational studies of drug effects: comment on the article by Pons-Estel et al. Arthritis Rheum. 61, 1614–1615 (2009).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Kasitanon, N., Fine, D. M., Haas, M., Magder, L. S. & Petri, M. Hydroxychloroquine use predicts complete renal remission within 12 months among patients treated with mycophenolate mofetil therapy for membranous lupus nephritis. Lupus 15, 366–370 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Parke, A. Antimalarial drugs and pregnancy. Am. J. Med. 85, 30–3 (1988).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Parke, A. & West, B. Hydroxychloroquine in pregnant patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 23, 1715–1718 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Costedoat-Chalumeau, N., Amoura, Z., Huong, D. L., Lechat, P. & Piette, J. C. Safety of hydroxychloroquine in pregnant patients with connective tissue diseases. Review of the literature. Autoimmun. Rev. 4, 111–115 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Germain, S. & Nelson-Piercy, C. Lupus nephritis and renal disease in pregnancy. Lupus 15, 148–155 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Clowse, M. E., Magder, L., Witter, F. & Petri, M. Hydroxychloroquine in lupus pregnancy. Arthritis Rheum. 54, 3640–3647 (2006).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Levy, R. A. et al. Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) in lupus pregnancy: double-blind and placebo-controlled study. Lupus 10, 401–404 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Izmirly, P. M. et al. Evaluation of the risk of anti-SSA/Ro-SSB/La antibody-associated cardiac manifestations of neonatal lupus in fetuses of mothers with systemic lupus erythematosus exposed to hydroxychloroquine. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 69, 1827–1830 (2010).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wang, C. et al. Discontinuation of antimalarial drugs in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 26, 808–815 (1999).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sundelin, S. P. & Terman, A. Different effects of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine on lysosomal function in cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells. APMIS 110, 481–489 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Marmor, M. F., Kellner, U., Lai, T. Y., Lyons, J. S. & Meiler, W. F. Revised recommendations on screening for chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine retinopathy. Ophthalmology 118, 415–422 (2011).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Rynes, R. I. Ophthalmologic considerations in using antimalarials in the United States. Lupus 5 (Suppl. 1), S73–S74 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Spalton, D. J. Retinopathy and antimalarial drugs—the British experience. Lupus 5 (Suppl. 1), S70–S72 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Marmor, M. F., Carr, R. E., Easterbrook, M., Farjo, A. A. & Mieler, W. F. Recommendations on screening for chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine retinopathy: a report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology 109, 1377–1382 (2002).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Mavrikakis, I. et al. The incidence of irreversible retinal toxicity in patients treated with hydroxychloroquine: a reappraisal. Ophthalmology 110, 1321–1326 (2003).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Lyons, J. S. & Severns, M. L. Using multifocal ERG ring ratios to detect and follow Plaquenil retinal toxicity: a review: review of mfERG ring ratios in Plaqunil toxicity. Doc. Ophthal. 118, 29–36 (2008).
  Article Google Scholar
• Wolfe, F. & Marmor, M. F. Rates and predictors of hydroxychloroquine retinal toxicity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care Res. (Hoboken) 62, 775–784 (2010).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Levy, G. D. et al. Incidence of hydroxychloroquine retinopathy in 1,207 patients in a large multicenter outpatient practice. Arthritis Rheum. 40, 1482–1486 (1997).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• The Royal College of Ophthalmologists. Hydroxychloroquine and Ocular Toxicity Recommendations on Screening [online], (2009).
• Nord, J. E., Shah, P. K., Rinaldi, R. Z. & Weisman, M. H. Hydroxychloroquine cardiotoxicity in systemic lupus erythematosus: a report of 2 cases and review of the literature. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 33, 336–351 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Puri, P. K., Lountzis, N. I., Tyler, W. & Ferringer, T. Hydroxychloroquine-induced hyperpigmentation: the staining pattern. J. Cutan. Pathol. 35, 1134–1137 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Herman, S. M., Shin, M. H., Holbrook, A. & Rosenthal, D. The role of antimalarials in the exacerbation of psoriasis: a systematic review. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 7, 249–257 (2006).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Bracamonte, E. R., Kowalewska, J., Starr, J., Gitomer, J. & Alpers, C. E. Iatrogenic phospholipidosis mimicking Fabry disease. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 48, 844–850 (2006).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Costedoat-Chalumeau, N. et al. Very low blood hydroxychloroquine concentration as an objective marker of poor adherence to treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 66, 821–824 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Costedoat-Chalumeau, N. et al. Low blood concentration of hydroxychloroquine is a marker for and predictor of disease exacerbations in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 54, 3284–3290 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Calvo-Alén, J. et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA): XXIV. Cytotoxic treatment is an additional risk factor for the development of symptomatic osteonecrosis in lupus patients: results of a nested matched case-control study. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 65, 785–790 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• James, J. A. et al. Hydroxychloroquine sulfate treatment is associated with later onset of systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 16, 401–409 (2007).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Irastorza, G. et al. Predictors of major infections in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res. Ther. 11, R109 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Shinjo, S. K. Systemic lupus erythematosus in the elderly: antimalarials in disease remission. Rheumatol. Int. 29, 1087–1090 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pons-Estel, G. J. et al. Possible protective effect of hydroxychloroquine on delaying the occurrence of integument damage in lupus: LXXI, data from a multiethnic cohort. Arthritis Care Res. (Hoboken) 62, 393–400 (2010).
  Article Google Scholar
• de Leeuw, K. et al. Traditional and non-traditional risk factors contribute to the development of accelerated atherosclerosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 15, 675–682 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Choojitarom, K. et al. Lupus nephritis and Raynaud's phenomenon are significant risk factors for vascular thrombosis in SLE patients with positive antiphospholipid antibodies. Clin. Rheumatol. 27, 345–351 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Kaiser, R., Cleveland, C. M. & Criswell, L. A. Risk and protective factors for thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus: results from a large, multi-ethnic cohort. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 68, 238–241 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Tektonidou, M. G., Laskari, K., Panagiotakos, D. B. & Moutsopoulos, H. M. Risk factors for thrombosis and primary thrombosis prevention in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus with or without antiphospholipid antibodies. Arthritis Rheum. 61, 29–36 (2009).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Barber, C. E., Geldenhuys, L. & Hanly, J. G. Sustained remission of lupus nephritis. Lupus 15, 94–101 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Buchanan, N. M. et al. Hydroxychloroquine and lupus pregnancy: review of a series of 36 cases. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 55, 486–488 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Costedoat-Chalumeau, N. et al. Safety of hydroxychloroquine in pregnant patients with connective tissue diseases: a study of one hundred thirty-three cases compared with a control group. Arthritis Rheum. 48, 3207–3211 (2003).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Carvalheiras, G. et al. Pregnancy and systemic lupus erythematosus: review of clinical features and outcome of 51 pregnancies at a single institution. Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol. 38, 302–306 (2010).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Aviña-Zubieta, J. A., Galindo-Rodriguez, G., Newman, S., Suarez-Almazor, M. E. & Russell, A. S. Long-term effectiveness of antimalarial drugs in rheumatic diseases. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 57, 582–587 (1998).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Finbloom, D. S., Silver, K., Newsome, D. A. & Gunkel, R. Comparison of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine use and the development of retinal toxicity. J. Rheumatol. 12, 692–694 (1985).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Spalton, D. J., Verdon Roe, G. M. & Hughes, G. R. Hydroxychloroquine, dosage parameters and retinopathy. Lupus 2, 355–358 (1993).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Morand, E. F., McCloud, P. I. & Littlejohn, G. O. Continuation of long term treatment with hydroxychloroquine in systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 51, 1318–1321 (1992).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Costedoat-Chalumeau, N. et al. Cardiomyopathy related to antimalarial therapy with illustrative case report. Cardiology 107, 73–80 (2007).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Costedoat-Chalumeau, N. et al. Heart conduction disorders related to antimalarials toxicity: an analysis of electrocardiograms in 85 patients treated with hydroxychloroquine for connective tissue diseases. Rheumatology (Oxford) 46, 808–810 (2007).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Wozniacka, A., Cygankiewicz, I., Chudzik, M., Sysa-Jedrzejowska, A. & Wranicz, J. K. The cardiac safety of chloroquine phosphate treatment in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: the influence on arrhythmia, heart rate variability and repolarization parameters. Lupus 15, 521–525 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cervera, A., Espinosa, G., Font, J. & Ingelmo, M. Cardiac toxicity secondary to long term treatment with chloroquine. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 60, 301 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Di Giacomo, T. B., Valente, N. Y. & Nico, M. M. Chloroquine -induced hair depigmentation. Lupus 18, 264–266 (2009).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bezerra, E. L., Vilar, M. J., da Trindade Neto, P. B. & Sato, E. L. Double-blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial of clofazimine compared with chloroquine in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 52, 3073–3078 (2005).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Van Beek, M. J. & Piette, W. W. Antimalarials. Dermatol. Clin. 19, 147–160 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Casado, E. et al. Antimalarial myopathy: an underdiagnosed complication? Prospective longitudinal study of 119 patients. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 65, 385–390 (2006).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Collins, G. B. & McAllister, M. S. Chloroquine psychosis masquerading as PCP: a case report. J. Psychoactive Drugs 40, 211–214 (2008).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar