Mutagenic and Cytotoxic Properties of Oxidation Products of 5-Methylcytosine Revealed by Next-Generation Sequencing (original) (raw)

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Mutagenic and Cytotoxic Properties of Oxidation Products of 5-Methylcytosine Revealed by Next-Generation Sequencing

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Abstract

5-methylcytosine (5-mC) can be sequentially oxidized to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC), 5-formylcytosine (5-foC), and finally to 5-carboxylcytosine (5-caC), which is thought to function in active DNA cytosine demethylation in mammals. Although the roles of 5-mC in epigenetic regulation of gene expression are well established, the effects of 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC on DNA replication remain unclear. Here we report a systematic study on how these cytosine derivatives (5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC) perturb the efficiency and accuracy of DNA replication using shuttle vector technology in conjugation with next-g sequencing. Our results demonstrated that, in Escherichia coli cells, all the cytosine derivatives could induce CT transition mutation at frequencies of 0.17%–1.12%, though no effect on replication efficiency was observed. These findings provide an important new insight on the potential mutagenic properties of cytosine derivatives occurring as the intermediates of DNA demethylation.

Citation: Xing X-W, Liu Y-L, Vargas M, Wang Y, Feng Y-Q, Zhou X, et al. (2013) Mutagenic and Cytotoxic Properties of Oxidation Products of 5-Methylcytosine Revealed by Next-Generation Sequencing. PLoS ONE 8(9): e72993. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072993

Editor: Martin G. Marinus, University of Massachusetts Medical School, United States of America

Received: June 7, 2013; Accepted: July 23, 2013; Published: September 16, 2013

Copyright: © 2013 Xing et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors are thankful for the financial support from the National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) (2013CB910702, 2012CB720601); the National Natural Science Foundation of China (91217309,91017013, 31070327, 21205091, 21228501); Ph.D. Programs Foundation of Ministry of Education of China (20120141120037), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Every single cell in a living organism carries the genome, which functions for the storage, replication and transmission of the genetic information. In addition to this basic hereditary genetic information, DNA contains epigenetic modifications that are present in the genomes [1]. Cytosine methylation (5-methylcytosine, 5-mC) at CpG dinucleotide site is the best-characterized epigenetic mark involved in regulating many cellular processes, including embryogenesis, regulation of gene expression, genomic imprinting and X-chromosome inactivation [2]. Consistent with these important roles, a variety of human diseases have been found to be associated with aberrant DNA methylation [3], [4].

DNA methylation undergoes dynamic changes and is reversible in a genome-wide or locus-specific manner [5]; however, the mechanisms of active DNA demethylation in mammals have been a matter of debate for many years [6]. Recent studies showed that Ten–Eleven Translocation (TET) proteins are capable of catalyzing the sequential oxidation of 5-mC to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC), 5-formylcytosine (5-foC), and finally to 5-carboxylcytosine (5-caC) (Figure 1) [7], [8], [9], [10]. Follow-up report revealed that 5-caC can be further recognized and cleaved by thymine-DNA glycosylase (TDG) and then the unmethylated cytosine can be restored via base-excision repair pathway [11]. Therefore, active DNA demethylation may be achieved through a multi-step oxidation of 5-mC with the generation of three intermediates, 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. The structures of the cytosine derivatives.

5-mC modification is catalyzed by DNA methyltransferase (DNMT). 5-mC can be demethylated through the oxidation of 5-mC by TET proteins to produce 5-hmC, 5-fC and 5-caC. TDG, thymine-DNA glycosylase; BER, base-excision repair.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072993.g001

5-hmC plays important roles on cellular differentiation [10] and epigenetic regulation [12], [13] and itself may serve as an epigenetic mark with regulatory functions aside from being an intermediate of active DNA cytosine demethylation [14]. In addition, previous reports together with our recent study revealed that 5-hmC content in tumor tissues were significantly lower than that in healthy control and tumor adjacent tissues [15], [16], [17], [18], suggesting that 5-hmC in genomic DNA might also be associated with tumor development. 5-hmC content in mammalian tissues and cells varies from 0.009% to 1.03% of cytosine (molar ratio of 5-hmC/cytosine or guanine) [19], [20], [21]. Although much less abundant than 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC are present at a level of between 103 and 105 per human cell [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], which is comparable to (for 5-foC and 5-caC) or much higher (for 5-hmC) than the frequency of DNA damage induced by environmental and endogenous agents [25]. DNA damage frequently induces mutations in genome and compromises DNA replication and transcription. Therefore, the presence of the oxidation products of 5-methylcytosine (5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC) in the genome raises an intriguing question on how these cytosine derivatives may affect DNA replication. To this end, here we systematically investigated the in-vivo replication of 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC by using our recently developed method, i.e. shuttle vector technology in conjunction with the next-generation sequencing (NGS) [26]. In the current study, we examined how these cytosine derivatives perturb the efficiency and accuracy of DNA replication in Escherichia coli (E. coli) cells. Our results demonstrated that all the cytosine derivatives of 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC could induce CT transition mutation, but none of them inhibit DNA replication in E. coli cells.

Materials and Methods

Chemicals and Cell Strains

Modified and unmodified oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) used in this study were all purchased from TaKaRa Biotechnology (Dalian, China). The sequences of 27mer 5-hmC-, 5-foC- and 5-caC-containing ODNs were listed in Table 1. The identities of the modified ODNs were confirmed by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/ Ionization – Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) (Figure S1). To differentiate the progeny vectors for individual cytosine derivative after in-vivo replication, a trinucleotide barcode was incorporated into the 27mer ODNs (Table 1, and barcode sequences were underlined). To examine the influence of sequence contexts on the replication of cytosine derivatives, we employed the ODNs with a 2′-deoxyguanosine (XG sequences) or 2′-deoxyadenosine (XA sequences) as the neighboring 3′ nucleoside (Table 1).

All enzymes were obtained from TaKaRa Biotechnology. Chemicals unless otherwise noted were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO). M13mp7 (L2) and wild-type AB1157 E. coli strains were kindly provided by Prof. John M. Essigmann, and polymerase-deficient AB1157 strains [Δpol B1::spec (pol II-deficient), ΔdinB (pol IV-deficient), ΔumuC::kan (pol V-deficient) and ΔumuC::kan ΔdinB (pol IV, pol V-double knockout)] were generously provided by Prof. Graham C. Walker [27].

Construction of ssM13 Genomes Harboring a Site-specifically Inserted Cytosine Derivative

The M13mp7 (L2) viral genomes, either control or carrying a site-specifically inserted cytosine derivative, were prepared following the previously described procedures [28]. Briefly, 20 pmol of ssM13mp7 (L2) was digested with 40 U EcoRI at 23°C for 8 h to linearize the vector. Two scaffolds, 5′-GCGACTCCACTGAATCATGGTCATAGCTTTC-3′ and 5′-GTAAAACGACGGCCAGTGAATTGAATTCGG-3′ (25 pmol), each spanning one end of the cleaved vector and the modified ODN insert, were annealed with the linearized vector. The 27mer modified ODN insert (30 pmol, Table 1) was 5′-phosphorylated with T4 polynucleotide kinase followed by ligating to the above vector by using T4 DNA ligase in the presence of the two scaffolds at 16°C for 8 h. T4 DNA polymerase (20 U) was subsequently added and the resulting mixture was incubated at 37°C for 4 h to degrade the scaffolds and residual unligated vector. The reaction mixture was purified with DNA Clean-up kit (Cycle-Pure Kit, Omega, Guangzhou, China) to obtain the cytosine derivative-containing vector.

Transfection of E. coli Cells with ssM13 Vectors Containing a 5-hmC, 5-foC or 5-caC

Desalted 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC-containing as well as control M13 genomes were mixed at 1∶1 ratio (25 fmol each) and transfected into wild-type AB1157 E. coli cells and the isogenic E. coli cells that are deficient in pol II, pol IV, pol V, or both pol IV and pol V. The electrocompetent cells were prepared following the previously published procedures [29]. After transfection, the E. coli cells were grown in LB culture at 37°C for 6 h, after which the phage was recovered from the supernatant by centrifugation at 13,000 rpm for 5 min. The resulting phage was further amplified in SCS110 E. coli cells to increase the progeny/cytosine derivative-genome ratio [28]. The phage recovered from the supernatant was passed through a QIAprep Spin M13 column (Qiagen) to isolate the ssM13 DNA.

Generation of Sequencing Library and Determination of the Bypass Efficiency and Mutation Frequency by NGS

The sequencing library was generated using NEBNext® DNA Sample Prep Master Mix Set 1 (New England Biolabs, Ipswich, MA, Figure S2). Briefly, 15 sets of primers each housing a unique trinucleotide barcode (Table S1), which designated host cell lines or individual biological replicates, were employed to generate PCR products from the progeny vectors. PCR amplification of the region of interest in the resulting progeny genome was performed using Phusion high-fidelity DNA polymerase (New England Biolabs) and running at 98°C for 60 s and 15 cycles at 98°C for 10 s, 44°C for 30 s and 72°C for 5 s, with a final extension at 72°C for 5 min. The 15 sets of PCR products were purified by QIAquick Nucleotide Removal Kit (Qiagen) and then mixed at equal amounts. The PCR mixture was phosphorylated at 5′ end using T4 polynucleotide kinase. A single ‘A’ nucleotide was added to the 3′ end of the PCR products and the resulting purified PCR mixture was ligated to two PE Adapters (Table S1). The ligation products were further amplified using PE PCR primers (Table S1) under the same conditions as described above. The resulting PCR products (172 bp) were gel-purified and subjected to NGS using Illumina Genome Analyzer IIe system (Illumina, San Diego, CA).

After obtaining the raw sequencing data, the reads of low quality or with undefined nucleobase in sequence were filtered and removed from the raw reads. The distributions of barcodes in the resulting filtered reads and the nucleobase (A, T, C or G) frequencies at the specific cytosine derivative site were analyzed according to our previously reported method [26]. The bypass efficiency was calculated using the following formula, %bypass = total number of reads from cytosine derivative genome/total number of reads from control genome. The mutation frequencies were calculated using the following formula, %mutation = total number of reads of A, T, C or G at original cytosine derivative site from cytosine derivative genome/total number of reads from cytosine derivative genome.

Results

Our strategy for high-throughput mutagenesis study involves the use of a combination of NGS with shuttle vector technology, as depicted in Figure 2. Following previously published procedures [30], [31], [32], we constructed the single-stranded (ss) M13 shuttle vectors carrying structurally defined cytosine derivative at a specific site. Six cytosine derivative-bearing and two control M13 genomes were mixed together and transfected into E. coli cells to examine the in-vivo mutagenic and cytotoxic properties. To illustrate the roles of various translesion synthesis DNA polymerases in bypassing these cytosine derivatives in vivo, we employed wild-type AB1157 E. coli cells as well as the isogenic strains deficient in pol II, pol IV, pol V, or both pol IV and pol V as the host cells for the replication study. After in-vivo replication, the ssM13 progeny vectors were isolated. Fifteen pairs of barcoded primers (Table S1), which designated 15 distinct sets of progeny genomes arising from triplicate replication experiments in 5 different host cell lines, were employed to generate PCR products from the progeny vectors. The 15 sets of PCR products were then mixed at equal amounts and the resulting PCR product mixture was phosphorylated at the 5′ end, adenylated at the 3′ end, and ligated to PE Adapters 1 and 2 (Table S1). The ligation products were further amplified using PE PCR primers (Table S1), and the resulting PCR products were gel-purified and subjected to NGS analysis using Illumina Genome Analyzer IIe system. From the sequencing results, we determined the mutagenic and cytotoxic properties of cytosine derivatives in different bacterial hosts by interrogating the distribution of barcodes and nucleobase (A, T, C or G) frequencies at the specific site. In addition, the sequencing reads obtained for the cytosine derivative-containing genomes relative to control genomes allowed for the calculation of bypass efficiencies for the cytosine derivative.

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Figure 2. A schematic diagram outlining the experimental procedures.

The 27mer cytosine derivative-containing ODNs with barcodes were ligated to the EcoR I-linearized M13 vector, mixed at equal amounts and subjected to in-vivo replication. The harvested M13 progenies were amplified with barcoded PCR primers, and equal amounts of PCR products from different cell lines were mixed and subjected to NGS library construction and sequencing.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072993.g002

We obtained a total of 0.52 million valid sequencing reads for the replication products of these genomes. Table S2 and S3 show the number of reads obtained for replication products, which is much more than what can be achieved with traditional colony picking and Sanger sequencing method. The bypass efficiencies were calculated from the ratio of the total number of reads from cytosine derivative genome over the total number of reads from the control genome. It turned out that the bypass efficiencies of 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC varied from ∼90% to 110% in wild-type AB1157 E. coli cells as well as in the isogenic strains deficient in pol II, pol IV, pol V, or both pol IV and pol V (Figure 3A), which suggested than these cytosine derivatives basically did not block DNA replication. The results from NGS data also allowed us to assess the mutation frequencies of cytosine derivatives in wild-type and bypass polymerase-deficient E. coli strains. The quantification data showed that all the cytosine derivatives of 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC are mutagenic, with CT transition occurring at frequencies of 0.17%–1.12% and with 5-caC being the most mutagenic (0.65% to 1.12%) (Figure 3B–3E).

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Figure 3. Bypass efficiencies and mutation frequencies of cytosine derivatives.

(A) Bypass efficiencies of 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC. (B–E) Mutation frequencies of control (B), 5-hmC (C), 5-foC (D) and 5-caC (E). The data represent the means and standard deviations of results from three independent experiments.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072993.g003

Our in-vivo replication study also revealed no significant difference of CT mutation between wild-type AB1157 and bypass polymerase-deficient E. coli strains for each cytosine derivative, suggesting that DNA pol II, pol IV or pol V may not be involved in the replicative bypass of these cytosine derivatives. It is possible that the bypass efficiencies and mutation frequencies of the cytosine derivatives may differ in different sequence contexts. Here we also assessed the effects of sequence context on DNA replication. The results demonstrate that the overall CT mutation induced by XG sequences is comparable to the mutation induced by XA sequences for each cytosine derivative (Figure 3), suggesting a lack of sequence context effect.

Discussion

Recently, it was discovered that the epigenetic mark of 5-mC can be further sequentially oxidized to 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC, which are present in substantial levels in the genome of cells [20], [21], [22], [23], [24]. These oxidation products of 5-mC potentially could stimulate cellular mutagenic events due to their uncanonical nucleobases. In this study we systematically explored the in-vivo mutagenicity and cytotoxicity of 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC.

Previous in-vitro experiments (primer extension assay) showed that 5-foC was able to induce slight CT transition mutation at frequency of 1%–2% using either high fidelity polymerase Klenow fragment (exo−) or low fidelity polymerase η and κ [33]. The frequency of CT mutation induced by 5-foC of the in-vitro experiments is comparable with our in-vivo assay. A recent study also revealed that 5-foC and 5-caC affect the substrate specificities and transcriptional fidelity of RNA polymerase II transcription [24]. The substitution of cytosine with 5-foC in DNA reduces the fidelity of nucleotide incorporation by a factor of ∼30 during transcription [24]. Human genomic mutation occurs at a frequency of ∼ 1.1–2.5×10−8 per base [34], [35]. Considering the contents of 5-hmC, 5-foC and 5-caC in cellular DNA, the mutations induced by these cytosine derivatives can be a relative large number compared to the natural mutation frequency of nucleobases. The mutagenic properties of cytosine derivatives induced in both replication and transcription steps may therefore compromise the genome fidelity and finally jeopardize the physiological functions of cells. It is of note that we employed E. coli cells as the host cells for the current study, which may not faithfully reflect the situation in mammalian cells. Further exploration of the replication of cytosine derivatives in mammalian cells is necessary for understanding their mutagenic and cytotoxic properties in mammalian cells. Nevertheless, the replicating properties of cytosine derivatives demonstrated in the current study, together with the previous report showing that 5-foC was mutagenic [33] as well as 5-foC and 5-caC reduced transcriptional fidelity [24], provide new insights on the mutagenic properties of the intermediates produced during active DNA cytosine demethylation.

A relative high error rate (1.2% for the control genome) was observed in our previous study, which is partially attributed to the sequencing error produced at the barcode sites [26]. Therefore, modified nucleobases with an induced mutation frequency that is <3–4% could not be accurately assessed. To circumvent this problem, we employed trinucleotide barcodes for the present study. The error rate was found to be lower than 0.05% with the use of trinucleotide barcodes, which is much lower than that obtained with dinucleotide barcodes; therefore, the method is capable of evaluating extremely low frequencies of mutations induced by the modified nucleobases.

Taken together, our current study demonstrated that the oxidized 5-mC derivatives can induce mutation, but they did not affect the replication efficiency in E. coli cells. These findings provide an important new perspective on the potential mutagenic properties of the cytosine derivatives occurring as the intermediates of DNA demethylation.

Supporting Information

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: XWX XZ BFY. Performed the experiments: XWX YLL MV BFY. Analyzed the data: XWX XZ BFY. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: YW YQF. Wrote the paper: XWX BFY.

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