Bernd Werse | Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences (original) (raw)

Papers by Bernd Werse

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2024

Background: While the supply of cannabis is commonly assumed to be dominated by criminal gangs, a... more Background: While the supply of cannabis is commonly assumed to be dominated by criminal gangs, a sizable share of the domestic cannabis supply is provided by small-scale growers. This article examines the nature and scope of small-scale growers' distribution practices, with a particular focus on crosscountry differences and variations between different types of grower-distributors, i.e., "non-suppliers", "exclusive social suppliers", "sharers and sellers" and "exclusive sellers". Methods: Based on a large convenience web survey sample of predominantly small-scale cannabis growers from 18 countries, this article draws on data from two subsamples. The first subsample includes past-year growers in all 18 countries who answered questions regarding their market participation (n = 8,812). The second subsample includes past-year growers in 13 countries, who answered additional questions about their supply practices (n = 2,296). Results: The majority of the cannabis growers engaged in distribution of surplus products, making them in effect "grower-distributors". Importantly, many did so as a secondary consequence of growing, and social supply (e.g., sharing and gifting) is much more common than selling. While growers who both shared and sold ("sharers and sellers"), and especially those who only sold ("exclusive sellers"), grew a higher number of plants and were most likely to grow due to a wish to sell for profits, the majority of these are best described as small-scale sellers. That is, the profit motive for growing was often secondary to non-financial motives and most sold to a limited number of persons in their close social network. Conclusion: We discuss the implications of the findings on the structural process of import-substitution in low-end cannabis markets, including a growing normalization of cannabis supply.

LSD war bei den "68ern" eine "angesagte" Droge. Doch bei Weitem nicht alle ma... more LSD war bei den "68ern" eine "angesagte" Droge. Doch bei Weitem nicht alle machten damit gute Erfahrungen. Zudem war vielen die aus der US-Hippie-Szene stammende "LSD-Ideologie" suspekt. Damals avancierte Cannabis zur massenhaft konsumierten Droge der jungen Rebellen

Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 2017

Guest Editors: Special Issue Drugs:Education, Prevention and Policy

Drugs: education, prevention and policy, 2017

Editorial

ABSTRACT Drogenprohibition ist die gefährlichste Sinnlosigkeit der Neuzeit. Keine andere internat... more ABSTRACT Drogenprohibition ist die gefährlichste Sinnlosigkeit der Neuzeit. Keine andere international verfolgte Strategie hat in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten Terroristen, Kriminelle und korrupte Beamte so konsequent unterstützt wie die Prohibition von Drogen. Kein anderes politisches Konzept hat so systematisch Gewalt, Menschenrechtsverletzungen, Korruption und die Ausbreitung von HIV/AIDS erzeugt. Und kaum ein anderes Thema wird so stark von angstbesetzter Moral und Tabus bestimmt und so wenig von empirischen Fakten. Wir müssen Drogensucht endlich als Herausforderung für die Gesundheits- und Sozialpolitik und nicht der Strafverfolgung begreifen. Die Beiträge in diesem Buch zeigen: Verschiedene europäische Staaten haben bereits Entkriminalisierungsmodelle entwickelt und sind mit der Lösung des Drogenproblems weiter als wir.

Sozial Extra, 2012

ABSTRACT Cannabis ist nicht nur die insgesamt meistkonsumierte illegale Droge; sie nimmt auch (ju... more ABSTRACT Cannabis ist nicht nur die insgesamt meistkonsumierte illegale Droge; sie nimmt auch (jugend-)kulturell eine Sonderrolle ein, die mit ihren besonderen Voraussetzungen und spezifischen historischen Konstellationen zusammenhängt. Trotz der Vielfalt der popkulturellen Zuschreibungen kann Cannabis nach wie vor als universelle „Protestdroge“ für Heranwachsende betrachtet werden.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2015

Cannabis prohibition can generally be regarded as the main driver for home growing of marijuana. ... more Cannabis prohibition can generally be regarded as the main driver for home growing of marijuana. In this paper, I discuss the impact of drug prohibition on cannabis cultivators from the three German-speaking countries: Germany, Austria and Switzerland. In particular, this refers to the questions; how illicitness influences motivations for growing; which precautionary measures are taken against the risk of discovery; how penal consequences differ in the three countries and how these aspects are linked to each other. The results come from a sample of 1578 respondents from the German-language online survey conducted following the International Cannabis Cultivation Questionnaire (ICCQ). The survey was carried out in late 2012 and early 2013. While most of the reasons for growing cannabis relate to avoiding negative consequences of prohibition, the illicitness of cannabis also plays a major role for concern about the cultivation activities as well as measures to avoid negative consequences. Swiss growers are less worried about their activity compared to respondents from Germany or Austria. The results confirm the notion that the illicitness of cannabis is the main drive for the private cultivation of the plant. At the same time, prohibition is the principal reason for concern regarding the growing activity. The severity of possible sentences seems to be linked to the degree of concern and precautionary measures.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2014

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2014

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2015

In recent years, marketplaces in the darknet emerged where vendors and customers can exchange ill... more In recent years, marketplaces in the darknet emerged where vendors and customers can exchange illicit drugs and other goods on digital platforms by using hidden internet services. The main thesis of this paper is that in an online environment, different practices for building trust and reputation emerge that stabilise market processes. Qualitative and quantitative data from a recent German project on conventional (offline) small-scale drug dealing as well as qualitative case studies on four online vendors operating on Agora market are used to explore alternative practices for building trust and reputation. They also explore the use of violence and logistics established on cryptomarkets in comparison to traditional dealing. To analyse the data we applied qualitative content analyses. For conventional commercial illicit drug dealing on various kinds of markets, trust between buyer and seller is a crucial issue, often emphasized by restricting deals to well-known persons. While this typically includes face-to-face contact, the opposite is true with online drug trading. It is characteristic of cryptomarkets that the parties involved in a transaction know neither the personal identity nor the physical location of one another. This is realised by using aliases, anonymising software, and cryptocurrencies for payments. Violence typically only plays a role in traditional drug dealing, but mostly, if at all, just as a latent threat for potential rule-breakers. Processing a transaction anonymously includes escrow services for the buyers, which makes trading more reliable, although they cannot completely prevent scamming. Furthermore, online drug marketplaces usually offer a customer feedback system that allows customers to rate vendors and review products. A positive vendor feedback helps building reputation and trust in such an online environment. With regard to logistics, most conventional small-scale dealers restrict their acts of selling to private surroundings to avoid encounters with law enforcement. In cryptomarkets, the purchased drugs are delivered by traditional postal services, sometimes to false addresses or to someone else's name to conceal the identity and address of the buyer. On virtual drug markets practices of building trust, conflict resolution and logistics is constantly evolving. They offer improved security solutions on the one hand while on the other hand scamming and fraud seem to be widely used on both online and conventional drug markets.

Monatsschrift Fur Kriminologie Und Strafrechtsreform, 2013

ABSTRACT Der vorliegende Beitrag präsentiert erste Ergebnisse einer quantitativ-qualitativ ausger... more ABSTRACT Der vorliegende Beitrag präsentiert erste Ergebnisse einer quantitativ-qualitativ ausgerichteten Studie zum Konsum, Erwerb und Handel mit illegalen Drogen in sozial unauffälligen Umfeldern. Wesentliche Zielsetzung ist die Erforschung der monetären und nicht-monetären Vorgänge bei der Distribution illegaler Substanzen innerhalb solcher Umfelder und damit in einem Bereich, der in vieler Hinsicht bedeutungsvoller ist als die häufig thematisierten sozial auffälligen Drogenszenen. Insgesamt wurden 214 Drogenkonsumierende, von denen die Mehrheit ebenfalls Erfahrungen mit der Distribution illegaler Substanzen hat, mittels eines biographisch-fokussierten Leitfadeninterviews und eines standardisierten Fragebogens befragt. Im Ergebnis zeigt sich, dass Handelsaktivitäten innerhalb von Netzwerken sozial integrierter Konsument/innen zu einem erheblichen Teil nicht-profitorientiert sind und sich im Sinne von „Freundschaftsdiensten“ vollziehen. Auch bei einem Großteil jener, die Gewinn mit dem Drogenverkauf erzielen, steht der Profit oftmals nicht im Zentrum des Interesses. Darüber hinaus läuft ein erheblicher Teil der Drogenweitergabe in gänzlich unentgeltlicher Weise – in Form von gemeinsamem Konsum oder Schenkungen – ab.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2014

Drugs and Alcohol Today, 2012

ABSTRACT Purpose ‐ This article aims to discuss the results on prevalence, patterns of use and mo... more ABSTRACT Purpose ‐ This article aims to discuss the results on prevalence, patterns of use and motivations for the use of legal high products/new psychoactive substances (NPS) and possible consequences for drug policy. Design/methodology/approach ‐ The main results are derived from a non-representative quantitative online survey in Germany, focused on persons with experience in legal highs use. Findings ‐ The general prevalence of legal highs varies considerably in different European countries; generally, it is much lower than the lifetime prevalence of illicit drugs. Almost every legal highs user has experience in the use of illicit drugs. Several types of (repeated) users can be identified. "Herbal incense" products are used by many persons in order to compensate for a limited availability of cannabis or to remain inconspicuous for law enforcement. Current research chemicals (RC) users are mainly experienced drug users who seek to expand the range of drugs being consumed with RCs. Repressive drug policy approaches seem to contribute to the use of legal highs as replacement drugs. Social implications ‐ Given that many NPS show side effects that are at least as serious as those associated with illicit drugs, and that long-time risks are unpredictable, repressive drug policy enforcement may lead to increased public health risks regarding drug users. Originality/value ‐ The survey is the first published quantitative survey focusing on legal highs users. The results have not been published in English yet.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2014

Das Frankfurter Bahnhofsviertel, 2010

ABSTRACT Die gängige gesellschaftliche Vorstellung über das › Drogenproblem ‹ ist vor allem geprä... more ABSTRACT Die gängige gesellschaftliche Vorstellung über das › Drogenproblem ‹ ist vor allem geprägt durch die öffentlich wahrnehmbaren Drogenszenen, den dort stattfindenden sichtbaren Handel mit und Konsum von illegalen Drogen in Verbindung mit Beschaffungskriminalität und Prostitution. Mit ihrer Lebensweise, öffentlichen Präsenz, sozialen Desintegration und gesundheitlichen Verelendung scheinen die Angehörigen dieser Szenen der gesellschaftlichen Norm zu widersprechen. Sie sind zum Inbegriff eines drogenzentrierten Lebens geworden, das durch die ständige Beschaffung und den permanenten Konsum von Drogen determiniert zu sein scheint und sie dabei jeglicher Selbstkontrolle, Handlungskompetenz und Handlungsalternativen beraubt hat.

Background: The production and consumption of cannabis for the treatment of medical conditions is... more Background: The production and consumption of cannabis for the treatment of medical conditions is of increasing importance internationally; however, research on different aspects of the phenomenon is still scarce. In this article, we report findings from a cross-cultural study of small-scale cannabis cultivation for medical purposes. This kind of comparative study has not been done previously. Methods: The data were gathered with a help of web surveys conducted by the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium (GCCRC) in Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany and the UK (N = 5313). In the analysis we compare reports of medical motives, for what conditions cannabis is used, whether users have diagnoses for these conditions and whether the use of cannabis been recommended as a treatment of those conditions by a medical doctor. Descriptive statistics are used to show the main commonalities and noteworthy disparities across different countries. Results: Findings from countries were quite similar, even though several national differences in details were found. Growing cannabis for medical purposes was widespread. The majority of medical growers reported cultivating cannabis for serious conditions. Most of them did have a formal diagnosis. One fifth had got a recommendation from their doctor, but in most cases cannabis use was self-medication which was not discussed with their doctors. Conclusion: There is a wider demand for licit access for medical cannabis than currently available in these countries. Ideologically, medical growers can be seen distancing themselves from both the legal and illicit drug markets. From a harm reduction perspective, it is worrying that, in the context of present health and control policies in these countries, many medical growers are using cannabis to treat serious medical conditions without proper medical advice and doctor's guidance.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2024

Background: While the supply of cannabis is commonly assumed to be dominated by criminal gangs, a... more Background: While the supply of cannabis is commonly assumed to be dominated by criminal gangs, a sizable share of the domestic cannabis supply is provided by small-scale growers. This article examines the nature and scope of small-scale growers' distribution practices, with a particular focus on crosscountry differences and variations between different types of grower-distributors, i.e., "non-suppliers", "exclusive social suppliers", "sharers and sellers" and "exclusive sellers". Methods: Based on a large convenience web survey sample of predominantly small-scale cannabis growers from 18 countries, this article draws on data from two subsamples. The first subsample includes past-year growers in all 18 countries who answered questions regarding their market participation (n = 8,812). The second subsample includes past-year growers in 13 countries, who answered additional questions about their supply practices (n = 2,296). Results: The majority of the cannabis growers engaged in distribution of surplus products, making them in effect "grower-distributors". Importantly, many did so as a secondary consequence of growing, and social supply (e.g., sharing and gifting) is much more common than selling. While growers who both shared and sold ("sharers and sellers"), and especially those who only sold ("exclusive sellers"), grew a higher number of plants and were most likely to grow due to a wish to sell for profits, the majority of these are best described as small-scale sellers. That is, the profit motive for growing was often secondary to non-financial motives and most sold to a limited number of persons in their close social network. Conclusion: We discuss the implications of the findings on the structural process of import-substitution in low-end cannabis markets, including a growing normalization of cannabis supply.

LSD war bei den "68ern" eine "angesagte" Droge. Doch bei Weitem nicht alle ma... more LSD war bei den "68ern" eine "angesagte" Droge. Doch bei Weitem nicht alle machten damit gute Erfahrungen. Zudem war vielen die aus der US-Hippie-Szene stammende "LSD-Ideologie" suspekt. Damals avancierte Cannabis zur massenhaft konsumierten Droge der jungen Rebellen

Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 2017

Guest Editors: Special Issue Drugs:Education, Prevention and Policy

Drugs: education, prevention and policy, 2017

Editorial

ABSTRACT Drogenprohibition ist die gefährlichste Sinnlosigkeit der Neuzeit. Keine andere internat... more ABSTRACT Drogenprohibition ist die gefährlichste Sinnlosigkeit der Neuzeit. Keine andere international verfolgte Strategie hat in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten Terroristen, Kriminelle und korrupte Beamte so konsequent unterstützt wie die Prohibition von Drogen. Kein anderes politisches Konzept hat so systematisch Gewalt, Menschenrechtsverletzungen, Korruption und die Ausbreitung von HIV/AIDS erzeugt. Und kaum ein anderes Thema wird so stark von angstbesetzter Moral und Tabus bestimmt und so wenig von empirischen Fakten. Wir müssen Drogensucht endlich als Herausforderung für die Gesundheits- und Sozialpolitik und nicht der Strafverfolgung begreifen. Die Beiträge in diesem Buch zeigen: Verschiedene europäische Staaten haben bereits Entkriminalisierungsmodelle entwickelt und sind mit der Lösung des Drogenproblems weiter als wir.

Sozial Extra, 2012

ABSTRACT Cannabis ist nicht nur die insgesamt meistkonsumierte illegale Droge; sie nimmt auch (ju... more ABSTRACT Cannabis ist nicht nur die insgesamt meistkonsumierte illegale Droge; sie nimmt auch (jugend-)kulturell eine Sonderrolle ein, die mit ihren besonderen Voraussetzungen und spezifischen historischen Konstellationen zusammenhängt. Trotz der Vielfalt der popkulturellen Zuschreibungen kann Cannabis nach wie vor als universelle „Protestdroge“ für Heranwachsende betrachtet werden.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2015

Cannabis prohibition can generally be regarded as the main driver for home growing of marijuana. ... more Cannabis prohibition can generally be regarded as the main driver for home growing of marijuana. In this paper, I discuss the impact of drug prohibition on cannabis cultivators from the three German-speaking countries: Germany, Austria and Switzerland. In particular, this refers to the questions; how illicitness influences motivations for growing; which precautionary measures are taken against the risk of discovery; how penal consequences differ in the three countries and how these aspects are linked to each other. The results come from a sample of 1578 respondents from the German-language online survey conducted following the International Cannabis Cultivation Questionnaire (ICCQ). The survey was carried out in late 2012 and early 2013. While most of the reasons for growing cannabis relate to avoiding negative consequences of prohibition, the illicitness of cannabis also plays a major role for concern about the cultivation activities as well as measures to avoid negative consequences. Swiss growers are less worried about their activity compared to respondents from Germany or Austria. The results confirm the notion that the illicitness of cannabis is the main drive for the private cultivation of the plant. At the same time, prohibition is the principal reason for concern regarding the growing activity. The severity of possible sentences seems to be linked to the degree of concern and precautionary measures.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2014

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2014

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2015

In recent years, marketplaces in the darknet emerged where vendors and customers can exchange ill... more In recent years, marketplaces in the darknet emerged where vendors and customers can exchange illicit drugs and other goods on digital platforms by using hidden internet services. The main thesis of this paper is that in an online environment, different practices for building trust and reputation emerge that stabilise market processes. Qualitative and quantitative data from a recent German project on conventional (offline) small-scale drug dealing as well as qualitative case studies on four online vendors operating on Agora market are used to explore alternative practices for building trust and reputation. They also explore the use of violence and logistics established on cryptomarkets in comparison to traditional dealing. To analyse the data we applied qualitative content analyses. For conventional commercial illicit drug dealing on various kinds of markets, trust between buyer and seller is a crucial issue, often emphasized by restricting deals to well-known persons. While this typically includes face-to-face contact, the opposite is true with online drug trading. It is characteristic of cryptomarkets that the parties involved in a transaction know neither the personal identity nor the physical location of one another. This is realised by using aliases, anonymising software, and cryptocurrencies for payments. Violence typically only plays a role in traditional drug dealing, but mostly, if at all, just as a latent threat for potential rule-breakers. Processing a transaction anonymously includes escrow services for the buyers, which makes trading more reliable, although they cannot completely prevent scamming. Furthermore, online drug marketplaces usually offer a customer feedback system that allows customers to rate vendors and review products. A positive vendor feedback helps building reputation and trust in such an online environment. With regard to logistics, most conventional small-scale dealers restrict their acts of selling to private surroundings to avoid encounters with law enforcement. In cryptomarkets, the purchased drugs are delivered by traditional postal services, sometimes to false addresses or to someone else's name to conceal the identity and address of the buyer. On virtual drug markets practices of building trust, conflict resolution and logistics is constantly evolving. They offer improved security solutions on the one hand while on the other hand scamming and fraud seem to be widely used on both online and conventional drug markets.

Monatsschrift Fur Kriminologie Und Strafrechtsreform, 2013

ABSTRACT Der vorliegende Beitrag präsentiert erste Ergebnisse einer quantitativ-qualitativ ausger... more ABSTRACT Der vorliegende Beitrag präsentiert erste Ergebnisse einer quantitativ-qualitativ ausgerichteten Studie zum Konsum, Erwerb und Handel mit illegalen Drogen in sozial unauffälligen Umfeldern. Wesentliche Zielsetzung ist die Erforschung der monetären und nicht-monetären Vorgänge bei der Distribution illegaler Substanzen innerhalb solcher Umfelder und damit in einem Bereich, der in vieler Hinsicht bedeutungsvoller ist als die häufig thematisierten sozial auffälligen Drogenszenen. Insgesamt wurden 214 Drogenkonsumierende, von denen die Mehrheit ebenfalls Erfahrungen mit der Distribution illegaler Substanzen hat, mittels eines biographisch-fokussierten Leitfadeninterviews und eines standardisierten Fragebogens befragt. Im Ergebnis zeigt sich, dass Handelsaktivitäten innerhalb von Netzwerken sozial integrierter Konsument/innen zu einem erheblichen Teil nicht-profitorientiert sind und sich im Sinne von „Freundschaftsdiensten“ vollziehen. Auch bei einem Großteil jener, die Gewinn mit dem Drogenverkauf erzielen, steht der Profit oftmals nicht im Zentrum des Interesses. Darüber hinaus läuft ein erheblicher Teil der Drogenweitergabe in gänzlich unentgeltlicher Weise – in Form von gemeinsamem Konsum oder Schenkungen – ab.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2014

Drugs and Alcohol Today, 2012

ABSTRACT Purpose ‐ This article aims to discuss the results on prevalence, patterns of use and mo... more ABSTRACT Purpose ‐ This article aims to discuss the results on prevalence, patterns of use and motivations for the use of legal high products/new psychoactive substances (NPS) and possible consequences for drug policy. Design/methodology/approach ‐ The main results are derived from a non-representative quantitative online survey in Germany, focused on persons with experience in legal highs use. Findings ‐ The general prevalence of legal highs varies considerably in different European countries; generally, it is much lower than the lifetime prevalence of illicit drugs. Almost every legal highs user has experience in the use of illicit drugs. Several types of (repeated) users can be identified. "Herbal incense" products are used by many persons in order to compensate for a limited availability of cannabis or to remain inconspicuous for law enforcement. Current research chemicals (RC) users are mainly experienced drug users who seek to expand the range of drugs being consumed with RCs. Repressive drug policy approaches seem to contribute to the use of legal highs as replacement drugs. Social implications ‐ Given that many NPS show side effects that are at least as serious as those associated with illicit drugs, and that long-time risks are unpredictable, repressive drug policy enforcement may lead to increased public health risks regarding drug users. Originality/value ‐ The survey is the first published quantitative survey focusing on legal highs users. The results have not been published in English yet.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2014

Das Frankfurter Bahnhofsviertel, 2010

ABSTRACT Die gängige gesellschaftliche Vorstellung über das › Drogenproblem ‹ ist vor allem geprä... more ABSTRACT Die gängige gesellschaftliche Vorstellung über das › Drogenproblem ‹ ist vor allem geprägt durch die öffentlich wahrnehmbaren Drogenszenen, den dort stattfindenden sichtbaren Handel mit und Konsum von illegalen Drogen in Verbindung mit Beschaffungskriminalität und Prostitution. Mit ihrer Lebensweise, öffentlichen Präsenz, sozialen Desintegration und gesundheitlichen Verelendung scheinen die Angehörigen dieser Szenen der gesellschaftlichen Norm zu widersprechen. Sie sind zum Inbegriff eines drogenzentrierten Lebens geworden, das durch die ständige Beschaffung und den permanenten Konsum von Drogen determiniert zu sein scheint und sie dabei jeglicher Selbstkontrolle, Handlungskompetenz und Handlungsalternativen beraubt hat.

Background: The production and consumption of cannabis for the treatment of medical conditions is... more Background: The production and consumption of cannabis for the treatment of medical conditions is of increasing importance internationally; however, research on different aspects of the phenomenon is still scarce. In this article, we report findings from a cross-cultural study of small-scale cannabis cultivation for medical purposes. This kind of comparative study has not been done previously. Methods: The data were gathered with a help of web surveys conducted by the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium (GCCRC) in Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany and the UK (N = 5313). In the analysis we compare reports of medical motives, for what conditions cannabis is used, whether users have diagnoses for these conditions and whether the use of cannabis been recommended as a treatment of those conditions by a medical doctor. Descriptive statistics are used to show the main commonalities and noteworthy disparities across different countries. Results: Findings from countries were quite similar, even though several national differences in details were found. Growing cannabis for medical purposes was widespread. The majority of medical growers reported cultivating cannabis for serious conditions. Most of them did have a formal diagnosis. One fifth had got a recommendation from their doctor, but in most cases cannabis use was self-medication which was not discussed with their doctors. Conclusion: There is a wider demand for licit access for medical cannabis than currently available in these countries. Ideologically, medical growers can be seen distancing themselves from both the legal and illicit drug markets. From a harm reduction perspective, it is worrying that, in the context of present health and control policies in these countries, many medical growers are using cannabis to treat serious medical conditions without proper medical advice and doctor's guidance.