Kajal Panda | Guru Ghasidas University (original) (raw)

Teaching Documents by Kajal Panda

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Heavy water or deuterium oxide (chemical formula D2O) is a compound that contains oxygen and deut... more Heavy water or deuterium oxide (chemical formula D2O) is a compound that contains oxygen and deuterium rather than the common hydrogen.

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Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) and atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a spectroanalytica... more Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) and atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a spectroanalytical technique for rapid trace metal analysis. AAS methods are based on the absorption of light by free metallic ions.

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Periodic table elements in chemistry are organized in order of increasing atomic number or the fu... more Periodic table elements in chemistry are organized in order of increasing atomic number or the full number of protons in the atomic nucleus, names as modern law of periodic table. According to the modern law of the periodic table, the chemical elements are arranged on the basis of electronic configuration and properties to classify four categories like s, p, d, and f-block element.

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Zinc (Zn), chemical element, the lustrous silvery metal of Group 12 or (IIB) of the periodic tabl... more Zinc (Zn), chemical element, the lustrous silvery metal of Group 12 or (IIB) of the periodic table, used in making alloys, corrosion-resistant coating, and dry cells. It is the last member of the 3d-series but no characteristics of the transition metals due to the presence of full fill d-orbital. The rise of shielding electrons along the 3d-series gradually makes the d-shell is a part of the inner core for the zinc atom and leaving only the s-pair for chemical bonding. The hexagonal closed packed crystal lattice, zinc has the chemical symbol Zn, atomic number 30. The closed packed lattice with elongated distances between the layers makes the metal denser than those of the copper and silver. The physical and chemical properties like atomic weight, melting point, boiling point, density, and valence shell electronic configuration of zinc are given below the picture. The low melting and boiling point of the metal reflects the weak participation of the outer ns electron for metallic bonding.

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Manganese (Mn), chemical element, a greyish-white hard, brittle paramagnetic metal of Group 7 (VI... more Manganese (Mn), chemical element, a greyish-white hard, brittle paramagnetic metal of Group 7 (VIIB) of the periodic table used mainly as an additive to steel. The Swedish chemist Bergmann discovered the presence of magnesium in the black magnesia but fails to isolate it. In chemistry, the element was isolated by another Swedish chemist Johan Gottlieb Gahn and studies by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1774. At first, the metal was named in Latin word magnesium from the old name pyrolusite but in 1808, the Latin name of manganese changed to manganism to avoid confusion.

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Electron, the lightest subatomic or elementary particle of atom carries a negative charge, 1.6021... more Electron, the lightest subatomic or elementary particle of atom carries a negative charge, 1.602176 × 10 coulomb or 4.8 × 10 esu which is demonstrated by the experiments involving the conduction of electricity through gases at low pressure. The rest mass of an electron 9.108 × 10 gm or 9.108 × 10 kg which is approximately 1/1836 of the mass of the proton particle. Like other elementary particles, an electron has mass, energy, and momentum (particle properties), and wavelength or frequency (wave properties) derived from the de-Broglie relation (E = hν = hc/λ). Discovery of Electron The electron was discovered by the British physicist J.J. Thomson in 1897 during the investigation of the properties of the cathode rays over twenty years. Gas discharge tubes contain a positive electrode (anode) and a negative electrode (cathode) with provisions of evacuation given below the picture.

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Scandium (Sc), chemical element or rare-earth metal of Group 3 of the periodic table has only one... more Scandium (Sc), chemical element or rare-earth metal of Group 3 of the periodic table has only one common oxidation number or state +3 with no d-electron. Scandium is a silvery-white, moderately soft metal that usually occurs with the lanthanides due to the lack of the characteristics of transition elements. The chemistry of scandium resembles the metal aluminum and Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev named it ekaboron. The silvery-white hexagonal crystal lattice, scandium has the chemical symbol Sc, atomic number 21, atomic weight 44.956, melting point 1539 °C, boiling point 2836°C , density 2.985 gm/cm3, and valence shell electronic configuration [Ar] 3d 4s. The common oxidation number or states of metal +3 with no electron in the valence d-orbitals. 1 2

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Aluminum (Al) or alumium, chemical element, silvery-white, lustrous, low melting, soft metal of G... more Aluminum (Al) or alumium, chemical element, silvery-white, lustrous, low melting, soft metal of Group 13 (IIIA) or boron family of the periodic table uses widely in our everyday life. Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the earth's crust (8 percent by weight) and the third most abundant chemical element after oxygen and silicon. Aluminum differs from the first member of Group 13 (boron) due to its chemical properties, high reactivity, and cationic chemistry in an aqueous solution. It combines most of the nonmetallic elements like nitrogen, sulfur, halogens, and intermetallic aluminum compounds with a large number of metals. The face-centered cubic crystal lattice (fcc), aluminum has the chemical symbol Al, atomic number 13, atomic weight 26.928, melting point 660 °C, boiling point 2467°C , density 2.70 gm/cm , and electron configuration 1s 2s 2p 3s. The name aluminum coming from the Latin word alumen, which describe the aluminum potassium sulfate, KAl(SO) , 12H O. The common oxidation number or states of metal +1. +2 and +3. Due to decreases of lattice energy with increasing size of cation 3 2 2 6 3 4 2 2

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Sulfur (S) or sulphur is the nonmetallic chemical element of Group 16 or VIA (Chalgens family) of... more Sulfur (S) or sulphur is the nonmetallic chemical element of Group 16 or VIA (Chalgens family) of the periodic table. Pure sulfur is a yellow color, tasteless, orderless, brittle solid, poor electrical conductor, and insoluble in water, uses widely for manufacturing sulfuric acid for the chemical industry. In 1809, the French chemists Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thenard discovered that the chemical elemental sulfur present in nature. It forms a large number of allotropes with puckered rings or long-chain sulfur atoms. In chemistry, except for gold and platinum, sulfur reacts with most of the elements to forms a large number of metallic and nonmetallic chemical compounds. Sulfur has four stable isotopes like 32S, 33S, 34S, and 36S.

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Gold (Au), chemical element, the yellow precious metal of Group 11 or 1B, and period 6 of the per... more Gold (Au), chemical element, the yellow precious metal of Group 11 or 1B, and period 6 of the periodic table uses widely from ancient history in jewelry or coinage production. The name gold is derived from the old English word geolu means yellow and from the Latin word aurum. Copper, silver, and gold constitute the family of the coinage of currency metals and occurs in nature in a native form with very similar chemical and physical properties in chemistry. The chemically unreactive, extremely malleable, ductile, high density (19.32 gm cm), attractive golden-yellow color, and bright metal gold found in nature's very pure form. The purity of metal expressed in carats, pure gold is 24 carat and common alloyed form with copper is 22 carat. The good conductor of specific heat and electricity gold has the chemical symbol Au, atomic number 79, atomic weight 196.967, melting point 1064 °C, boiling point 2808°C , valence shell electron configuration [Kr] 4f 5d 6s , and common oxidation number state +3. The metal from fcc crystal lattice in the solid form is known for its characteristic color. In learning chemistry, the characteristic golden yellow color of gold arises from the absorption in the UV and blue regions of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding to the excitation of electrons from filled d-band to s-p conduction band.-3

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Copper (Cu), chemical element, soft, tough, malleable, and reddish-brown metal of Group 11 or IB ... more Copper (Cu), chemical element, soft, tough, malleable, and reddish-brown metal of Group 11 or IB of the periodic table with high electrical and thermal conductivity. The metal copper form an fcc crystal lattice found the free metallic state in the environment. The native copper was fairly abundant in nature and the extraction could be easily from its ores. The metal and its alloy like bronze (copper + tin) are used in history for mankind from the Bronze age (3500 BCE) in Neolithic and Mesopotamia civilization. Copper is present in hemocyanin of blood of cuttlefish helps for the formation of hemoglobin (an oxygen carrier) in the animal body, also present in plants like green peas. Archaeological discovered the island of Cyprus in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (3500 BC) famous for the mines of copper. The name copper derived from the Latin name Cuprum via Cyprium with chemical symbol Cu, atomic number 29, atomic weight 63.546, meting point 1084.6 °C, boiling point 2560 °C, density 8.95 gm cm and valence shell electron configuration of the atom [Ar] 3d 4s. The physical and chemical properties of high melting and density coinage or noble metals (copper, silver, gold family) are very similar in chemistry.-3, 10 1

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Silver (Ag), atomic number 47, the shiny white, lustrous metal of Group 11 or IB in periodic tabl... more Silver (Ag), atomic number 47, the shiny white, lustrous metal of Group 11 or IB in periodic table chemical element uses from the ancient age to jewelry, coinage (decorative beauty), and electrical conductivity. The name silver comes from Assyrian serpu or Gothic silbur meaning white and from Latin name, Argentum means shiny white (Greek latter Argos). The noble metal, silver form an FCC crystal lattice structure with characteristic silvery-white colour. Although the atomic states of copper, silver, and gold (noble metal family) contain ns (n-1)d outer electron configuration or filled d-subshell but they considered transition elements because in +2 and +3 oxidation number or state of chemical element posses incompletely filled d-orbital. Chemically, silver metal is quite unreactive element with chemical symbol = Ag, atomic weight = 107.868, melting point = 961.8 °C, boiling point = 2162 °C, and electrical resistivity = 1.67 ohm. The learning chemistry, silver dissolved in water to the extent of 0.07 mg liter in presence of dissolved oxygen and attacked by atmospheric sulfur compounds, mainly hydrogen sulfide (H S).

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Lithium (Li), atomic number 3, the lightest solid chemical element of Group 1 (IA) in the periodi... more Lithium (Li), atomic number 3, the lightest solid chemical element of Group 1 (IA) in the periodic table or alkali metal family has wide industrial application in the present day of the world. The systematic study of alkali metal (lithium, sodium, and potassium) in inorganic chemistry describes their physical and chemical properties which can readily understand by the outer electron configuration of the elements. The alkali metal, lithium is soft, low melting (melting point 180.5 °C), silvery-white body-centered cubic crystal lattice at room temperature but at low temperature, it forms a hexagonal close pack structure. The electron configuration of the lithium atom, 1s 2s , the only 2s electron of the metal takes part in metallic bonding. The large difference between the first and second ionization energy of lithium suggests that the preferred oxidation number or state of metal will be +1 and preferred to form ionic chemical bonding or compounds in chemistry. All the alkali metals give characteristic flame colour due to easy excitation by electromagnetic spectrum (lithium-crimson, sodium-yellow, potassium-violet, rubidium-red-violet, cesium-blue). This fact of alkali metals developed the analytical method for precise estimation by flame photometer. 2 1 1

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Renewable energy or alternative energy comes from renewable sources like sunlight (solar energy),... more Renewable energy or alternative energy comes from renewable sources like sunlight (solar energy), wind (wind power), rivers water (hydroelectric power), hot springs (geothermal energy), and biomass (biofuel) are naturally replenished on a human timescale. But all sources of energy are not beneficial for the earth's environment. For example, renewable energy like hydroelectric power and biomass can affect the living of wildlife, create different types of climate change in the environment. The uses of different types of renewable energy increase by replacing fossil fuel which offering lower emission of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and other pollutants responsible for environmental pollution. The energy comes from fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas (hydrocarbon) uses (about 80 percent) for the power generation of the world. But due to limited resources non-renewable energy and the large demand for electric power, the resources do not meet the global demand in the middle of the century. Therefore, we need to grow renewable energy resources in the middle of the century. The combustion of fossil fuels also a negative effect on our earth's environment. The burning of fossil fuel (coal, wood, oils, and natural gas) in power plants or engines of vehicles emits different types of air pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, unburnt particles of matter, and toxic chemicals or heavy chemical elements like mercury, chromium, and arsenic. The emission of these pollutants causes acid rain (responsible for water pollution and soil pollution), the greenhouse effect causes global warming.

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Boron (B), atomic number 5, is the first chemical element of Group 13 or Group IIIA in the period... more Boron (B), atomic number 5, is the first chemical element of Group 13 or Group IIIA in the periodic table has the smallest size and highest electronegativity, the compounds are essential to plant growth and wide industrial application of ancient civilization. The small size, high ionization energy, and moderate electronegativity (close to carbon and hydrogen) explain the formation of many exciting and unusual covalent bond or compound of boron in chemistry.

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Viscosity is the resistance to flow exhibited by fluids (liquid or gas) like glycerol, ester, oil... more Viscosity is the resistance to flow exhibited by fluids (liquid or gas) like glycerol, ester, oils, water, alcohol, ether and due to the property, the flow of some liquids is slower than the other. For example, glycerol, ester, oil flow slowly while water, ether, alcohol flow rapidly on the solid surface due to viscosity. The former liquids are called high viscous liquid while the latter liquids are called high viscous liquids. The reciprocal of viscosity is called fluidity which measures the flowing tendency of the liquid to study physics and chemistry. Kinematic viscosity in physics sometimes is used in engineering studies to compare the following property of the different liquids. It is defined as kinematic viscosity = viscosity coefficient (η)/density (ρ) and expressed or calculate in the Stoke unit for the honor of the scientist Stoke. The measurement of viscosity data of fluids is important in the study of biology, chemistry, and physiology, it also uses to dealing with various problems solve in fluid mechanics, especially in paint, ink, colloids,

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Fluorine (F), chemical formula F2, atomic number 9 is the most electronegative and most chemicall... more Fluorine (F), chemical formula F2, atomic number 9 is the most electronegative and most chemically reactive member of the halogen family or Group 17 of the periodic table element. Due to high reactivity and small size of atoms, fluorine combines directly with metal, almost all nonmetal, and noble gases. The reactions with many elements are vigorous and sometimes explosive. The exceptionally high reactivity of fluorine was assigned due to low F-F bond energy ( 159 kJ mol-1) which gradually decreases in other members of the group (chlorine, bromine, and iodine).

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Helium, chemical symbol He, atomic number 2, the second most abundant chemical element in the ear... more Helium, chemical symbol He, atomic number 2, the second most abundant chemical element in the earth universe after hydrogen (H 76 percent; He 23 percent) is a colorless, orderless, and tasteless gas and liquid at-268 °C. The noble gases or group-18 element of the periodic table, helium formed in the thermonuclear reactions on stars but it present to a very negligible extent in the earth atmosphere due to the lightness of gas. The boiling and freezing point of helium is lower than any known chemical substances of the universe and cannot be solidified by sufficient cooling at normal atmospheric pressure. Helium gas consists of two stable isotopes with chemical formula He and He, He-4 is formed on earth by alpha particle decay of radioactive elements, but He-3 is formed by nuclear reactions induced by cosmic radiations. Prior to 1960 helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon were belong to the family of inert or rare gases, now these are named noble gases. The noble gases were not known at Mendeleev's time. Today all the noble gases like helium, neon, argon, xenon, and radon are discovered and characterize and extreme inertness distinct from any other chemical elements of the periodic table. Helium atom (atomic number = 2 and mass number = 4) has two protons and neutrons in the nucleus and two extranuclear electrons surrounded the nucleus of the atom. 4 3

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Water pollution, the release of insoluble solid particles, soluble salts, sewage (waste water), g... more Water pollution, the release of insoluble solid particles, soluble salts, sewage (waste water), garbage, low-level radioactive substances, industrial wastages, algae, bacteria go into the surface of groundwater or into the rivers, lakes, streams, and oceans, the water gets polluted or it interferes natural functioning of water in our ecosystem. In addition to the release of substances, chemical solutions, or microorganisms, water pollution also causes or facts by radioactivity and heat (in the form of energy) of our environment. Water bodies can be polluted by different types of substances like industrial wastes, organic sewage wastes, chemical fertilizer (plant nutrients), disease-producing microorganisms, toxic chemicals, sediments, heat, petroleum oil which affect the beneficial use of water discuss in this learning chemistry topics.

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Nitrogen, symbol N, chemical formula N is colourless, odourless, tasteless, nonmetallic gas, and ... more Nitrogen, symbol N, chemical formula N is colourless, odourless, tasteless, nonmetallic gas, and essential constituent of the living matter or group-15 periodic table element in chemistry. It is a most plentiful substance (78 percent by volume and 75 percent by weight) in the earth atmosphere as dinitrogen gas (N) but the abundance of nitrogen in rocks and soils of the earth environment is remarkably low (about 19 ppm) comparable to gallium (Ga), niobium (Nb) and lithium (Li). Only nitrogenous minerals like KNO (saltpeter) and NaNO (Chile saltpeter) are isolated via nitric acid by the action of nitrifying or fixation bacteria. Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Henry Cavendish had independently discovered and isolated nitrogen but the credit of discovery given to Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772. Rutherford has given this credit because his work was published first in a science journal. The name nitrogen was given by French chemist Jean-Antoine-Claude Chaptal in 1790 because it was found in nitric acid and nitrate compounds. Major deposits of nitrate occur in Bolivia, Italy, Spain, Russia, and some regions of India. The major human interference occurs through artificial fixation for the manufacture of fertilizers to meet the increasing demand for food for the growing human family. 2 2 3 3

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Heavy water or deuterium oxide (chemical formula D2O) is a compound that contains oxygen and deut... more Heavy water or deuterium oxide (chemical formula D2O) is a compound that contains oxygen and deuterium rather than the common hydrogen.

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Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) and atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a spectroanalytica... more Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) and atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a spectroanalytical technique for rapid trace metal analysis. AAS methods are based on the absorption of light by free metallic ions.

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Periodic table elements in chemistry are organized in order of increasing atomic number or the fu... more Periodic table elements in chemistry are organized in order of increasing atomic number or the full number of protons in the atomic nucleus, names as modern law of periodic table. According to the modern law of the periodic table, the chemical elements are arranged on the basis of electronic configuration and properties to classify four categories like s, p, d, and f-block element.

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Zinc (Zn), chemical element, the lustrous silvery metal of Group 12 or (IIB) of the periodic tabl... more Zinc (Zn), chemical element, the lustrous silvery metal of Group 12 or (IIB) of the periodic table, used in making alloys, corrosion-resistant coating, and dry cells. It is the last member of the 3d-series but no characteristics of the transition metals due to the presence of full fill d-orbital. The rise of shielding electrons along the 3d-series gradually makes the d-shell is a part of the inner core for the zinc atom and leaving only the s-pair for chemical bonding. The hexagonal closed packed crystal lattice, zinc has the chemical symbol Zn, atomic number 30. The closed packed lattice with elongated distances between the layers makes the metal denser than those of the copper and silver. The physical and chemical properties like atomic weight, melting point, boiling point, density, and valence shell electronic configuration of zinc are given below the picture. The low melting and boiling point of the metal reflects the weak participation of the outer ns electron for metallic bonding.

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Manganese (Mn), chemical element, a greyish-white hard, brittle paramagnetic metal of Group 7 (VI... more Manganese (Mn), chemical element, a greyish-white hard, brittle paramagnetic metal of Group 7 (VIIB) of the periodic table used mainly as an additive to steel. The Swedish chemist Bergmann discovered the presence of magnesium in the black magnesia but fails to isolate it. In chemistry, the element was isolated by another Swedish chemist Johan Gottlieb Gahn and studies by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1774. At first, the metal was named in Latin word magnesium from the old name pyrolusite but in 1808, the Latin name of manganese changed to manganism to avoid confusion.

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Electron, the lightest subatomic or elementary particle of atom carries a negative charge, 1.6021... more Electron, the lightest subatomic or elementary particle of atom carries a negative charge, 1.602176 × 10 coulomb or 4.8 × 10 esu which is demonstrated by the experiments involving the conduction of electricity through gases at low pressure. The rest mass of an electron 9.108 × 10 gm or 9.108 × 10 kg which is approximately 1/1836 of the mass of the proton particle. Like other elementary particles, an electron has mass, energy, and momentum (particle properties), and wavelength or frequency (wave properties) derived from the de-Broglie relation (E = hν = hc/λ). Discovery of Electron The electron was discovered by the British physicist J.J. Thomson in 1897 during the investigation of the properties of the cathode rays over twenty years. Gas discharge tubes contain a positive electrode (anode) and a negative electrode (cathode) with provisions of evacuation given below the picture.

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Scandium (Sc), chemical element or rare-earth metal of Group 3 of the periodic table has only one... more Scandium (Sc), chemical element or rare-earth metal of Group 3 of the periodic table has only one common oxidation number or state +3 with no d-electron. Scandium is a silvery-white, moderately soft metal that usually occurs with the lanthanides due to the lack of the characteristics of transition elements. The chemistry of scandium resembles the metal aluminum and Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev named it ekaboron. The silvery-white hexagonal crystal lattice, scandium has the chemical symbol Sc, atomic number 21, atomic weight 44.956, melting point 1539 °C, boiling point 2836°C , density 2.985 gm/cm3, and valence shell electronic configuration [Ar] 3d 4s. The common oxidation number or states of metal +3 with no electron in the valence d-orbitals. 1 2

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Aluminum (Al) or alumium, chemical element, silvery-white, lustrous, low melting, soft metal of G... more Aluminum (Al) or alumium, chemical element, silvery-white, lustrous, low melting, soft metal of Group 13 (IIIA) or boron family of the periodic table uses widely in our everyday life. Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the earth's crust (8 percent by weight) and the third most abundant chemical element after oxygen and silicon. Aluminum differs from the first member of Group 13 (boron) due to its chemical properties, high reactivity, and cationic chemistry in an aqueous solution. It combines most of the nonmetallic elements like nitrogen, sulfur, halogens, and intermetallic aluminum compounds with a large number of metals. The face-centered cubic crystal lattice (fcc), aluminum has the chemical symbol Al, atomic number 13, atomic weight 26.928, melting point 660 °C, boiling point 2467°C , density 2.70 gm/cm , and electron configuration 1s 2s 2p 3s. The name aluminum coming from the Latin word alumen, which describe the aluminum potassium sulfate, KAl(SO) , 12H O. The common oxidation number or states of metal +1. +2 and +3. Due to decreases of lattice energy with increasing size of cation 3 2 2 6 3 4 2 2

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Sulfur (S) or sulphur is the nonmetallic chemical element of Group 16 or VIA (Chalgens family) of... more Sulfur (S) or sulphur is the nonmetallic chemical element of Group 16 or VIA (Chalgens family) of the periodic table. Pure sulfur is a yellow color, tasteless, orderless, brittle solid, poor electrical conductor, and insoluble in water, uses widely for manufacturing sulfuric acid for the chemical industry. In 1809, the French chemists Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thenard discovered that the chemical elemental sulfur present in nature. It forms a large number of allotropes with puckered rings or long-chain sulfur atoms. In chemistry, except for gold and platinum, sulfur reacts with most of the elements to forms a large number of metallic and nonmetallic chemical compounds. Sulfur has four stable isotopes like 32S, 33S, 34S, and 36S.

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Gold (Au), chemical element, the yellow precious metal of Group 11 or 1B, and period 6 of the per... more Gold (Au), chemical element, the yellow precious metal of Group 11 or 1B, and period 6 of the periodic table uses widely from ancient history in jewelry or coinage production. The name gold is derived from the old English word geolu means yellow and from the Latin word aurum. Copper, silver, and gold constitute the family of the coinage of currency metals and occurs in nature in a native form with very similar chemical and physical properties in chemistry. The chemically unreactive, extremely malleable, ductile, high density (19.32 gm cm), attractive golden-yellow color, and bright metal gold found in nature's very pure form. The purity of metal expressed in carats, pure gold is 24 carat and common alloyed form with copper is 22 carat. The good conductor of specific heat and electricity gold has the chemical symbol Au, atomic number 79, atomic weight 196.967, melting point 1064 °C, boiling point 2808°C , valence shell electron configuration [Kr] 4f 5d 6s , and common oxidation number state +3. The metal from fcc crystal lattice in the solid form is known for its characteristic color. In learning chemistry, the characteristic golden yellow color of gold arises from the absorption in the UV and blue regions of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding to the excitation of electrons from filled d-band to s-p conduction band.-3

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Copper (Cu), chemical element, soft, tough, malleable, and reddish-brown metal of Group 11 or IB ... more Copper (Cu), chemical element, soft, tough, malleable, and reddish-brown metal of Group 11 or IB of the periodic table with high electrical and thermal conductivity. The metal copper form an fcc crystal lattice found the free metallic state in the environment. The native copper was fairly abundant in nature and the extraction could be easily from its ores. The metal and its alloy like bronze (copper + tin) are used in history for mankind from the Bronze age (3500 BCE) in Neolithic and Mesopotamia civilization. Copper is present in hemocyanin of blood of cuttlefish helps for the formation of hemoglobin (an oxygen carrier) in the animal body, also present in plants like green peas. Archaeological discovered the island of Cyprus in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (3500 BC) famous for the mines of copper. The name copper derived from the Latin name Cuprum via Cyprium with chemical symbol Cu, atomic number 29, atomic weight 63.546, meting point 1084.6 °C, boiling point 2560 °C, density 8.95 gm cm and valence shell electron configuration of the atom [Ar] 3d 4s. The physical and chemical properties of high melting and density coinage or noble metals (copper, silver, gold family) are very similar in chemistry.-3, 10 1

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Silver (Ag), atomic number 47, the shiny white, lustrous metal of Group 11 or IB in periodic tabl... more Silver (Ag), atomic number 47, the shiny white, lustrous metal of Group 11 or IB in periodic table chemical element uses from the ancient age to jewelry, coinage (decorative beauty), and electrical conductivity. The name silver comes from Assyrian serpu or Gothic silbur meaning white and from Latin name, Argentum means shiny white (Greek latter Argos). The noble metal, silver form an FCC crystal lattice structure with characteristic silvery-white colour. Although the atomic states of copper, silver, and gold (noble metal family) contain ns (n-1)d outer electron configuration or filled d-subshell but they considered transition elements because in +2 and +3 oxidation number or state of chemical element posses incompletely filled d-orbital. Chemically, silver metal is quite unreactive element with chemical symbol = Ag, atomic weight = 107.868, melting point = 961.8 °C, boiling point = 2162 °C, and electrical resistivity = 1.67 ohm. The learning chemistry, silver dissolved in water to the extent of 0.07 mg liter in presence of dissolved oxygen and attacked by atmospheric sulfur compounds, mainly hydrogen sulfide (H S).

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Lithium (Li), atomic number 3, the lightest solid chemical element of Group 1 (IA) in the periodi... more Lithium (Li), atomic number 3, the lightest solid chemical element of Group 1 (IA) in the periodic table or alkali metal family has wide industrial application in the present day of the world. The systematic study of alkali metal (lithium, sodium, and potassium) in inorganic chemistry describes their physical and chemical properties which can readily understand by the outer electron configuration of the elements. The alkali metal, lithium is soft, low melting (melting point 180.5 °C), silvery-white body-centered cubic crystal lattice at room temperature but at low temperature, it forms a hexagonal close pack structure. The electron configuration of the lithium atom, 1s 2s , the only 2s electron of the metal takes part in metallic bonding. The large difference between the first and second ionization energy of lithium suggests that the preferred oxidation number or state of metal will be +1 and preferred to form ionic chemical bonding or compounds in chemistry. All the alkali metals give characteristic flame colour due to easy excitation by electromagnetic spectrum (lithium-crimson, sodium-yellow, potassium-violet, rubidium-red-violet, cesium-blue). This fact of alkali metals developed the analytical method for precise estimation by flame photometer. 2 1 1

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Renewable energy or alternative energy comes from renewable sources like sunlight (solar energy),... more Renewable energy or alternative energy comes from renewable sources like sunlight (solar energy), wind (wind power), rivers water (hydroelectric power), hot springs (geothermal energy), and biomass (biofuel) are naturally replenished on a human timescale. But all sources of energy are not beneficial for the earth's environment. For example, renewable energy like hydroelectric power and biomass can affect the living of wildlife, create different types of climate change in the environment. The uses of different types of renewable energy increase by replacing fossil fuel which offering lower emission of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and other pollutants responsible for environmental pollution. The energy comes from fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas (hydrocarbon) uses (about 80 percent) for the power generation of the world. But due to limited resources non-renewable energy and the large demand for electric power, the resources do not meet the global demand in the middle of the century. Therefore, we need to grow renewable energy resources in the middle of the century. The combustion of fossil fuels also a negative effect on our earth's environment. The burning of fossil fuel (coal, wood, oils, and natural gas) in power plants or engines of vehicles emits different types of air pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, unburnt particles of matter, and toxic chemicals or heavy chemical elements like mercury, chromium, and arsenic. The emission of these pollutants causes acid rain (responsible for water pollution and soil pollution), the greenhouse effect causes global warming.

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Boron (B), atomic number 5, is the first chemical element of Group 13 or Group IIIA in the period... more Boron (B), atomic number 5, is the first chemical element of Group 13 or Group IIIA in the periodic table has the smallest size and highest electronegativity, the compounds are essential to plant growth and wide industrial application of ancient civilization. The small size, high ionization energy, and moderate electronegativity (close to carbon and hydrogen) explain the formation of many exciting and unusual covalent bond or compound of boron in chemistry.

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Viscosity is the resistance to flow exhibited by fluids (liquid or gas) like glycerol, ester, oil... more Viscosity is the resistance to flow exhibited by fluids (liquid or gas) like glycerol, ester, oils, water, alcohol, ether and due to the property, the flow of some liquids is slower than the other. For example, glycerol, ester, oil flow slowly while water, ether, alcohol flow rapidly on the solid surface due to viscosity. The former liquids are called high viscous liquid while the latter liquids are called high viscous liquids. The reciprocal of viscosity is called fluidity which measures the flowing tendency of the liquid to study physics and chemistry. Kinematic viscosity in physics sometimes is used in engineering studies to compare the following property of the different liquids. It is defined as kinematic viscosity = viscosity coefficient (η)/density (ρ) and expressed or calculate in the Stoke unit for the honor of the scientist Stoke. The measurement of viscosity data of fluids is important in the study of biology, chemistry, and physiology, it also uses to dealing with various problems solve in fluid mechanics, especially in paint, ink, colloids,

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Fluorine (F), chemical formula F2, atomic number 9 is the most electronegative and most chemicall... more Fluorine (F), chemical formula F2, atomic number 9 is the most electronegative and most chemically reactive member of the halogen family or Group 17 of the periodic table element. Due to high reactivity and small size of atoms, fluorine combines directly with metal, almost all nonmetal, and noble gases. The reactions with many elements are vigorous and sometimes explosive. The exceptionally high reactivity of fluorine was assigned due to low F-F bond energy ( 159 kJ mol-1) which gradually decreases in other members of the group (chlorine, bromine, and iodine).

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Helium, chemical symbol He, atomic number 2, the second most abundant chemical element in the ear... more Helium, chemical symbol He, atomic number 2, the second most abundant chemical element in the earth universe after hydrogen (H 76 percent; He 23 percent) is a colorless, orderless, and tasteless gas and liquid at-268 °C. The noble gases or group-18 element of the periodic table, helium formed in the thermonuclear reactions on stars but it present to a very negligible extent in the earth atmosphere due to the lightness of gas. The boiling and freezing point of helium is lower than any known chemical substances of the universe and cannot be solidified by sufficient cooling at normal atmospheric pressure. Helium gas consists of two stable isotopes with chemical formula He and He, He-4 is formed on earth by alpha particle decay of radioactive elements, but He-3 is formed by nuclear reactions induced by cosmic radiations. Prior to 1960 helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon were belong to the family of inert or rare gases, now these are named noble gases. The noble gases were not known at Mendeleev's time. Today all the noble gases like helium, neon, argon, xenon, and radon are discovered and characterize and extreme inertness distinct from any other chemical elements of the periodic table. Helium atom (atomic number = 2 and mass number = 4) has two protons and neutrons in the nucleus and two extranuclear electrons surrounded the nucleus of the atom. 4 3

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Water pollution, the release of insoluble solid particles, soluble salts, sewage (waste water), g... more Water pollution, the release of insoluble solid particles, soluble salts, sewage (waste water), garbage, low-level radioactive substances, industrial wastages, algae, bacteria go into the surface of groundwater or into the rivers, lakes, streams, and oceans, the water gets polluted or it interferes natural functioning of water in our ecosystem. In addition to the release of substances, chemical solutions, or microorganisms, water pollution also causes or facts by radioactivity and heat (in the form of energy) of our environment. Water bodies can be polluted by different types of substances like industrial wastes, organic sewage wastes, chemical fertilizer (plant nutrients), disease-producing microorganisms, toxic chemicals, sediments, heat, petroleum oil which affect the beneficial use of water discuss in this learning chemistry topics.

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Nitrogen, symbol N, chemical formula N is colourless, odourless, tasteless, nonmetallic gas, and ... more Nitrogen, symbol N, chemical formula N is colourless, odourless, tasteless, nonmetallic gas, and essential constituent of the living matter or group-15 periodic table element in chemistry. It is a most plentiful substance (78 percent by volume and 75 percent by weight) in the earth atmosphere as dinitrogen gas (N) but the abundance of nitrogen in rocks and soils of the earth environment is remarkably low (about 19 ppm) comparable to gallium (Ga), niobium (Nb) and lithium (Li). Only nitrogenous minerals like KNO (saltpeter) and NaNO (Chile saltpeter) are isolated via nitric acid by the action of nitrifying or fixation bacteria. Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Henry Cavendish had independently discovered and isolated nitrogen but the credit of discovery given to Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772. Rutherford has given this credit because his work was published first in a science journal. The name nitrogen was given by French chemist Jean-Antoine-Claude Chaptal in 1790 because it was found in nitric acid and nitrate compounds. Major deposits of nitrate occur in Bolivia, Italy, Spain, Russia, and some regions of India. The major human interference occurs through artificial fixation for the manufacture of fertilizers to meet the increasing demand for food for the growing human family. 2 2 3 3

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