Behzad Sam - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Behzad Sam

DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals), 2021

International Journal of Cognitive and Language Sciences, 2022

The morphology of most Persian words goes back to the Indo-European and Indo-Iranian periods. The... more The morphology of most Persian words goes back to the Indo-European and Indo-Iranian periods. These words show the beliefs and views of the earliest people about their structure. It is also necessary to search for the vocabulary in the Indo-European and Indo-Iranian periods. During recent centuries, comparative linguistics and mythology have facilitated the common Indo-European lexicon to reconstruct. The Persians have been appeared in the Assyrian inscriptions and affected by the Mesopotamians. It is also worth paying attention to the cultural and linguistic exchanges with the Mesopotamian civilizations. This paper aims to show the morphology of Pārsa based on linguistic evolutions and historical-mythological traditions. The method of this study is also to reconstruct both morphology and the earliest form of Persia. Then, it is tried to find the most plausive meaning according to the historical-mythological traditions. In the end, the sickle or scythe is considered the most probable meaning for Pārsa.

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2023

One of the reasons for the success of the Achaemenids was the innovation and precise organization... more One of the reasons for the success of the Achaemenids was the innovation and precise organization used in the administrative and military fields. Of course, these organizations had their roots in the previous governments that had changed in these borrowings. The units of the Achaemenid army are also among the cases that have their origins in the ancient East. In this article, the attempt is to find the sources of the Immortal Army based on the writings of old and current authors and archaeological documents, and the name mentioned by Herodotus. Of course, linguistic sources have also been used for better conclusions than the indicated sources. This paper emphasizes linguistic data to lead to a better deduction. Thus, it was included that about 'anauša' is more probable than anušiya.

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Vol:17, No:6, 2023, 2023

The rituals of fire among the Iranians originate in the general Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iran... more The rituals of fire among the Iranians originate in the general Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iranian eras when they lived in regions known as the Pontic-Caspian (Indo-Europeans) and Kazakhstan (the Andronovo culture belonging to the Indo-Iranian tribes), and we can get to know about their vulgar heritage despite their separation from each other during several millennia. The early Aryan settlers of Iran had brought their cults to their new home and were bequeathed to them by their Indo-Iranian ancestors. Tradition speaks of several great sacred Iranian fires consecrated by the pre-Zoroastrian kings. Ātar or fire is comparable to the Vedic Agni Atar's functions and elaborately are delineated in the Later Avesta. This paper aims to show the fire cults among the Iranian Lur tribes who originate in the past. Therefore, it will be searched for rituals equally in Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Periods and Old Iranian Texts and their frequency among the Lur tribes. In addition to the library books, we tried to interview the chiefs of Lur tribes. Finally, we concluded that the fire among the Lur Tribes is a sequence of beliefs of the Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Periods reflected in Old and Middle Iranian texts.

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Cognitive and Language Sciences Vol:16, No:11, 2022, 2022

—Ancient scribes usually wrote an Akkadian word in Akkadian, spelling it out syllable by syllable... more —Ancient scribes usually wrote an Akkadian word in Akkadian, spelling it out syllable by syllable. Sometimes, however, they wrote down the equivalent word in Sumerian for the Akkadians held Sumerian culture, from which they had inherited the cuneiform script, in high esteem. ‘Syllabic’ vs. ‘Sumerographic’ are the two forms of cuneiform writing. The Assyrian language was a branch of the Akkadian one that used the script and language of Aramaic throughout the whole of the empire. It caused the Aramaic language to apply as an Interlingua until the following periods. This paper aims to compare Sumerograms in Akkadian texts and Arameograms in Middle Persian texts to find a continuous written system that continued to apply from Akkadian to the Middle Persian. It will firstly introduce Sumerograms which are the earliest Akkadian texts, and will finally explain the Aramaic language, which continues its use by the Parthians and Sasanians as Arameograms. Thus, the main conclusion to be drawn is that just as the Akkadians who applied Sumerograms, Parthian and Pahlavi (including the inscriptions and the Psalter), too, employed a large number of, and more or less faithfully rendered, Aramaic words, also called Arameograms

Linguistic, historical, and geographical conditions suggest that a homogeneous communities settle... more Linguistic, historical, and geographical conditions suggest that a homogeneous communities settled in Eurasian and spoke to Proto-Indo-European language who began to expand around 4000 BCE. Mallory and some scholars believe that the Indo-Europeans homeland was in the arid steppe of the Pont-Caspian region. Having migrated the Indo-Iranian groups, they probably occupied somewhere in central Asia (a geographical parallel to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) from where some Iranians migrated to the Iran’s plateau, while the Indo-Aryans migrated to the subcontinent. Grandson is one of the most controversial words in the Indo-European languages. This word is attested in most of Indo-European languages such as Celtic, Germanic, Italic, Baltic, Slavic, Albanian, Greek, and Indo-Iranian. In the Proto-Indo-European languages *h2nep-ōt uses for ‘male descendant’ and h2nep-t-ih1/2 for ‘female descendant’. Buck believes that PIE *nepot probably consists of a compound of nega...

The ancient Persian society was traditionally divided into three or four different classes. Exper... more The ancient Persian society was traditionally divided into three or four different classes. Experts believe that this shared legacy went back to the Indo-European periods with its foot print, in turn, traceable in the Indo-European societies’ belief system. The important question, however, is whether these classifications were the results of such religious beliefs and their gods, or attributable to some other social factors. What role did the colours play in this classification? The Sasanian period constitutes the cardinal source of our information. We are, however, trying to find out: The origins of this classification, The nature of influence, and the role that, the element of colour played in this classification, Whether such classification was identical and uniform amongst all ancient Persian dynasties.

Alzahra University, 2021

Linguistic, historical, and geographical conditions suggest that homogeneous communities settled ... more Linguistic, historical, and geographical conditions suggest that homogeneous communities settled in Eurasian and spoke Proto-Indo-European languages that began to expand around 4000 BCE. Mallory and some scholars believe that the Indo-European’s homeland was in the arid steppe of the Pont-Caspian region. Having migrated the Indo-Iranian groups, they probably occupied somewhere in central Asia (a geographical parallel to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) from where some Iranians migrated to the Iran’s plateau, while the Indo-Aryans migrated to the subcontinent (Mallory 1989:262).
Grandson is one of the most controversial words in the Indo-European languages. This word is attested in most of Indo-European languages such as Celtic, Germanic, Italic, Baltic, Slavic, Albanian, Greek, and Indo-Iranian. In the Proto-Indo-European languages *h2nep-ōt is used for ‘male descendant’ and h2nep-t-ih1/2 for ‘female descendant’. Buck believes that PIE *nepot probably consists of a compound of negative ‘ne’, and a form of stem, which is seen in Sanskrit pati-, Latin potis ‘able’, etc., and literally means ‘powerless’(Buck.1944: 644). Paul Horn quotes from Leumann about PIE nēpōt which means ‘orphan’ (Horn.1883: 234), and Nourai regards nebh= ‘damp, humidity’ as a root (Nourai.2012: 322), but Helmut Rix does not think of nebh as the root of ‘nava’(Rix.2001: 448) .
In the Old Indian, nápāt means ‘grandson, son, descendant’, which changes into nápāt-am in the accusative case and nápāt-ah in the plural subjective case. In the Old Indian, apám nápāt compares with apąm napå in Avesta, which denotes ‘son of waters’. náptr̥ is the strong (vrdhi) stem of nápāt in the Old Indian, which originates from the rainy cloud. Napāt in the Old Avesta, and naptar, nafǝδar, in the Young Avesta means ‘grandson and sisters’ son’. This word seems to be used with the apąm to mean “grandson of waters” and originates from mountain and naptya denotes ‘descendant’. Darius the Great applied napāt to describe his pedigree in Bihstun Inscription. Horn regards nápāt as Old Iranian word for nava in the New Persian, which has evolved into nevi in Kurdish, and nwasia in Baluchi of the Iranian’s dialects. The ‘nava’ or grandson is transcribed ‘nab’ into the Middle Persian, which originates in *napak of the Pahlavi Language (Horn.1883: 234).
The noun structure in the Sumerian language, however, is based on nominal chains which include primary nouns such as dumu, ‘son’, ‘child’, and a number of verbal roots employing as a noun like ti ‘lie’, buru ‘hole’. The use of primary nouns was relatively limited, and the Sumerian language, instead, applied a large number of nominal compounds. In the Sumerian language, ‘dumu’ stands for “son”, and ‘dumu-ka’ for “grandson”, which Sumerian kings referred to in their communications. A Sumerian king, Gudae C. 2141- 2122 B.C, ruled over Lagash city and was a patron of the arts and the builder of a new temple at Girsu. Sumerian texts in Gudae era indicate “grandson or dumu-ka”.
Furthermore, nouns in the Akkadian language are declined in the three cases of singular: nominative (stem-um), genitive (stem-im), accusative (stem-am), (dual: nom-?n, gen,acc -in; and plural: nom-?, gen, acc, -?) or the three statuses of rectus status, constructus status, and absolutus rectus. In the Old Akkadian languages, the words of dumu-ka, DUMU DUMU, TUR TUR, ablu abli, bin bini, and liblibi use for ‘grandson’ and we describe them in the Akkadian lingual branches which all except for dumu-ka take the reduplicated forms. There are some reduplicated words in the Old and Middle Akkadian language, and some words and prefixes are used for the family members in the Kassite period such as mār= son; marat= daughter; TUR or Mar=son; TUR-SAL or Marat=daughter; TUR-TUR=grandson; KAL =adult; KAL-TUR-TUR=adult grandson.
Moreover, among the survived texts of the Assyrian language, nouns have the three numbers of singular, dual and plural , as well as the three declinable case of the nominative, ending in –u; the genitive, ending in –i; and the accusative, ending in –a. We have a few words which applied for ‘grandson’, such as DUMU DUMU, TUR TUR, ablu abli, bin bini, liblibi. Just like the noun structure in the Assyrian language, nouns are declined in the three number of singular, plural and dual; and three cases of nominative, accusative and genitive, and compounds along with reduplicated words coincide with those of the Assyrian language. In the Young Babylonian period, we see the same of structure and reduplicated stem with genitive case such as ban bani ‘grandson’, lib-lib-bi, mār māri and other reduplicated words.
However, nouns in the Aramaic language may be divided into two groups: 1-nouns with the Aramaic origin and loanwords adapted to Aramaic morphology 2- loanwords which have not been adapted to Aramaic morphology. The former groups with original Aramaic stock end for the most part in either (–a) or (–ta). The latter groups of loanwords are adapted to Aramaic morphology. They adopted this nominal inflection through the suffixing of the ending (–a) or, in a few cases, (-ta). In the Aramaic language and its sub-branches bar applies for "son, grandson", and bar bar in the same meaning. In addition, ben bane means a "son" which in the widest sense includes "grandson".

Books by Behzad Sam