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Articles by Adam Lowe by Factum Foundation

'Scanning Seti: The Re-generation of a Pharaonic Tomb' celebrates the 200th anniversary of the di... more 'Scanning Seti: The Re-generation of a Pharaonic Tomb' celebrates the 200th anniversary of the discovery of the tomb of Seti I – perhaps the most important and complete record of the art, science, philosophy, theology, poetry and magic of Ancient Egypt.

The first serious facsimile was the re-creation of parts of the tomb made by Giovanni Battista Belzoni and shown at the Egyptian Halls in London in 1821. It caused a sensation, building on the excitement generated by Napoleon’s ‘Discovery of Egypt’. It can be seen as a critical moment in the European love of the Pharaohs and their civilisation. It was one of many events that fuelled the imagination and led Thomas Cook to form the travel agency that made it possible for the general public to first visit Egypt.

In the 1880s, the tourism trade in the Middle East was effectively invented by Thomas Cook’s son, John Mason Cook, who became described as ‘the second greatest man in Egypt. An initial trickle of tourists led to a vast industry that grew throughout the 20th century and reached its peak at the end of the first decade of the 21st. But political upheaval in Egypt dramatically reduced the number of visitors to the Theban Necropolis, causing real hardship for those people who depended on them.

The 19th century production of Belzoni’s facsimile seriously damaged the fabric of the tomb, as did the hacking out of cultural artifacts and souvenirs. But later so did the presence of millions of visitors a year. Since 2009 the Theban Necropolis Preservation Initiative has been working to rethink the relationship between tourism and preservation, and the facsimiles of rooms I and J are an important part of this work. In contrast to the destruction caused by Belzoni and others, this work is re-uniting with the tomb all the fragments that are scattered in museums
around the world. It is a major undertaking that has required the support and involvement of many museums and the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities. Hopefully it will allow the tomb to once again provoke wonder, interest and amazement, and stimulate a new wave of a different kind of tourism to Egypt. Through an awareness of the extraordinary history of the Valley of the Kings, and the complex task of conserving it, this new generation of tourist will help preserve the tombs rather than contribute to their gradual destruction.

Full title: Changing Attitudes to Preservation and the role of non-contact recording technologies... more Full title: Changing Attitudes to Preservation and the role of non-contact recording technologies in the creation of digital archives for sharing cultural heritage in virtual forms and as exact physical facsimiles

for ReACH (Reproduction of Art and Cultural Heritage), a global initiative launched by the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Peri Foundation
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'Time, fire and water are of course bad for any painting's health. But the sad fact is that two groups of people have done more damage to paintings than anything else: those who sell art and those charged with looking after it.'
Brendor Grosvenor, The Art Newspaper, 9 March, 2017

Articulate objects allow us access to the actions and thoughts of past generations. Mass tourism, war, vandalism, instability, political apathy, climate change, natural disasters, theft and iconoclastic attacks not only challenge their preservation but threaten their very existence as meaningful evidence.

New technologies permit highly accurate condition monitoring that can help the conservation community manage the changes brought about by a world population of over seven billion people.

Preservation has always been a complex task that reflects the values of the time and geographic location. The evidence of the past is always seen through the filter of previous generations, and their actions condition our understanding in a way that will, in turn, shape the response of future generations.

Switching Codes. Thinking Through Digital Technology in the Humanities and the Arts, 2011

Understanding the impact of rapidly changing information technology on intellectual and cultural ... more Understanding the impact of rapidly changing information technology on intellectual and cultural life is increasingly difficult. 'Switching Codes' brings together leading American and European scholars, scientists and artists to consider how the precipitous growth of digital information and its associated technologies are transforming the ways we think and act. Employing a wide range of forms, including essay, dialogue, short fiction and game design, this book aims to model and foster discussion between IT specialists, who typically have scant training in the humanities or traditional arts, and scholars and artists, who often understand little about the technologies that are so radically transforming in their fields.

The Theban Necropolis Preservation Initiative by Factum Foundation

The Theban Necropolis Preservation Initiative (TNPI) is a collaboration between Factum Foundation... more The Theban Necropolis Preservation Initiative (TNPI) is a collaboration between Factum Foundation for Digital Technology in Conservation and the University of Basel under the aegis of the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities. Since 2016 the TNPI has worked to digitally document the tomb of Seti I, the largest and most important decorated tomb in the Theban Necropolis, at the highest resolution possible in 3D and colour. The initial recording work began in 2001 with a close-range laser scanner that has evolved over the years. Recording was also carried out in the burial chamber of Thutmosis III in 2002 and in Tutankhamun’s burial chamber in 2009 and again in 2019. The data is being used for both online and offline applications. Online it is being used for study, condition monitoring, sharing and communicating the importance of pharaonic culture. Offline it can be rematerialised at 1:1 as an exact facsimile that is indistinguishable from
the original to the naked eye under normal lighting and viewing conditions.

Since the start of 2019 the work of the TNPI has been carried out by a totally Egyptian team working with Factum Foundation. One of the main goals of the TNPI since the beginning has been to ensure that the local community benefits from internationally funded efforts to preserve cultural heritage. The fact that the training is proving effective, with an Egyptian team now carrying out all operations on the ground, is an example of successful capacity building.

In October 2017, Factum Foundation published Two Hundred Years in the Life of the Tomb of Seti I,... more In October 2017, Factum Foundation published Two Hundred Years in the Life of the Tomb of Seti I, a book recounting the story of the tomb's numerous restorations and reproductions since the 19th century. This illustrated publication aims to change attitudes towards the role of preservation, non-contact recording and the production of facsimiles.

Katalog zur Ausstellung "Scanning Sethos. Die Wiedergeburt eines Pharaonengrabes" 29. Oktober 201... more Katalog zur Ausstellung "Scanning Sethos. Die Wiedergeburt eines Pharaonengrabes" 29. Oktober 2017 bis 6. Mai 2018 Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

Factum Arte and Factum Foundation have been working in the Valley of the Kings since 2001, as par... more Factum Arte and Factum Foundation have been working in the Valley of the Kings since 2001, as part of a long-term collaboration with the University of Basel under the aegis of the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities. Since 2009, this work has primarily been carried out through the Theban Necropolis Preservation Initiative (TNPI).

The TNPI works on conserving and sustaining Egyptian cultural heritage using non-contact digital technology, with Egyptian staff in charge of all operations on the ground and external involvement focused on capacity development, training, support and technology transfer.

The aim is to develop a sustainable structure that will help the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities to preserve the Valley of the Kings for future generations while encouraging tourism to Luxor and the West Bank.

In 2019, the Initiative received the official patronage of the Egyptian National Commission for UNESCO.
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A collective text by the team from the TNPI and the University of Basel, including: Aliaa Ismail, Adam Lowe, Susanne Bickel, Carlos Bayod, Elizabeth Mitchell, Silvia Álvarez and Charlotte Skene Catling
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, 2020 by Factum Foundation

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

Adapted from a text published in 'Modelling Time. The Permanent Collection 1925–2014', eds. Mari ... more Adapted from a text published in 'Modelling Time. The Permanent
Collection 1925–2014', eds. Mari Lending and Mari Hvattum (Oslo: Torpedo Press, 2014)
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Written by Adam Lowe, Director of Factum Arte and the founder of Factum Foundation for Digital Technology in Conservation
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

ARCHiVe, the centre for Analysis and Recording of Cultural Heritage in Venice, is a collaboration... more ARCHiVe, the centre for Analysis and Recording of Cultural Heritage in Venice, is a collaboration between the Giorgio Cini Foundation, Factum Foundation and the Digital Humanities Laboratory of the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (DHLAB-ÉPFL). It is primarily funded and supported by the Helen Hamlyn Trust. ARCHiVe is dedicated to innovation in the recording, archiving, interpretation and sharing of the world’s cultural heritage.
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Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

The biography of a painting can be almost as complex as that of its subject. The exhibition 'Mada... more The biography of a painting can be almost as complex as that of its subject. The exhibition 'Madame de Pompadour in the Frame' was built around a facsimile by Factum Foundation of François Boucher’s famous 1756 portrait of the all-powerful, Enlightenment maitresse-en-titre of Louis XV. The initial idea was to replicate Boucher’s portrait, reunite it with the frame it once occupied and to display them together. But the idea grew…

A smaller Boucher oil sketch of Madame de Pompadour in an elaborate 18th-century gilded frame remains at Waddesdon. By Factum also recording and replicating this sketch, there was the rare possibility to display an original and a facsimile next to one another, challenging visitors to determine which was which. Then it became important for the show to explain what this means and why it matters. This is a description of the exhibition, of the intention behind the design, and some reflections that emerged during the process.

Exhibition: Madame de Pompadour in the Frame
Waddesdon Manor, 23 May 2019 – Spring 2020
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Written by: Charlotte Skene Catling, architect
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

In August 2019, a team of 3D-scanning and photography specialists from Factum Foundation carried ... more In August 2019, a team of 3D-scanning and photography specialists from Factum Foundation carried out the recording of the Raphael Cartoons at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, probably the most important series of artworks from the Italian Renaissance in the UK, which have been loaned to the Museum by Her Majesty the Queen from the Royal Collection. This project was one of Factum Foundation’s most ambitious digitisation projects undertaken to date, more logistically complex even than the recording at the Prado in 2019 of the entire series of Goya’s Black Paintings, and has broached new frontiers in the large-scale, high-resolution digital documentation of low-relief surfaces.
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Written by: Carlos Bayod Lucini, architect and Project Director at Factum Foundation
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

A 15-inch laptop screen may not seem like an ideal window into a painting. The digital image depi... more A 15-inch laptop screen may not seem like an ideal window into a painting. The digital image depicts an abstracted version of reality that only bears comparison to the original work of art in some ways. Nevertheless, all eyes were on the screen during the recording of St Lucy (Francesco del Cossa, c. 1473) at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., in October 2015. The object of rapt attention was an image simulating the painting’s relief that was appearing on the screen in real-time.

As the Lucida 3D Scanner moved over the surface of the painting, the data materialising on-screen revealed an image that felt strangely familiar: one could quickly discern the punch marks delineating St Lucy’s golden halo and the radial furrows on the golden background. It was also possible to distinguish the fi gure of the saint and her habit from the surrounding areas, as well as the painting’s uneven surface, its subtle craquelure, the slight curvature of the panel, or even areas of paint loss around the edges. The digital image reconstructed the painting’s texture by means of light and shadow, with clarity and precision, as though it were an aerial photograph exposing the relief of the Earth’s surface.
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Written by: Carlos Bayod Lucini, architect and Project Director at Factum Foundation
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

The map of the world made by the 12th-century Islamic cartographer Al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sici... more The map of the world made by the 12th-century Islamic cartographer Al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily was a masterpiece of mapping which remained the most technically sophisticated world-map for three centuries after its production. Drawing on several centuries of Islamic cartographic research, Al-Idrisi produced both a book of 70 maps covering the surface of the known world, and a single, round map engraved onto a silver disk and set into a wooden table, with Mecca at its centre.

The silver disk is now lost, and the Entertainment for those wanting to discover the world (Nuzhat al-mushtāq fi'khtirāq al-āfāq), survives only through later copies. But in a groundbreaking project, Factum Foundation has undertaken to re-create Al-Idrisi’s fabled map. Neither facsimile nor copy, this re-creation nonetheless combines painstaking historical research with advanced digital techniques and the highest levels of craftsmanship, paying tribute to the lost original and offering yet another layer to add to the complexity of its transmission.
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Written by: Elizabeth Mitchell, PHD in Greco-Roman archaeology from Harvard
University
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

Over the past three years Factum Foundation has collaborated with the Trust for African Rock Art ... more Over the past three years Factum Foundation has collaborated with the Trust for African Rock Art (TARA) and the University of Calabar (UNICAL) on a project aimed at documenting, preserving and raising awareness about the Bakor monoliths, also known as the ‘Cross-River’ or ‘Ikom’ monoliths, and locally referred to as ‘akwanshi’ or ‘atal’. The Bakor monoliths take their name from a group of linguistically and ethnically related communities (‘clans’) in an area of approximately 350 square miles in the Middle Cross River region in which they are exclusively found.

The word ‘Bakor’ means ‘come and take’, a name that was chosen as a collective title because the phrase is identical in the languages of each of the original eight clans that make up the Bakor people. Referring to them as the ‘Bakor’ monoliths, rather than the ‘Cross-River’ (the state) or ‘Ikom’ (the nearest large town) monoliths as was formerly customary, respects the unique ownership of the monoliths by this people. Furthermore, the meaning of the word perhaps has some ironic value, since one of the main problems that has beset their preservation has been theft.
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Written by: Ferdinand Saumarez Smith
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

One of the great advantages of facsimiles is their ability to move – to travel ‘back’ to an objec... more One of the great advantages of facsimiles is their ability to move – to travel ‘back’ to an object’s original location or onward to new ones. Mobility also creates the potential for new juxtapositions, and even new collections, of artworks, allowing them to be restaged outside traditional museum settings in creative new configurations. One such project is the new initiative currently underway at the Casa Natal de Velázquez, where facsimiles are being used to create an unprecedented permanent display of the early works of one of Spain’s most revered artists in the context of the city and time at which they were made.
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Written by: Elizabeth Mitchell, PHD in Greco-Roman archaeology from Harvard
University
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

Sculpted by Amico Aspertini and his workshop between 1526 and 1530, the lunette tableau above the... more Sculpted by Amico Aspertini and his workshop between 1526 and 1530, the lunette tableau above the right-hand portico of the façade of San Petronio shows either Joseph of Arimathea or Nicodemus lowering Christ into the tomb while the two Marys lament to either side. Famously described by Vasari as ‘an eccentric man of extravagant brain, whose figures… are equally eccentric and even mad’, Aspertini (1474–1552) was a skilled and prolific painter and sculptor; Vasari writes that ‘there is no church or street in Bologna which has not some daub by the hand of this master’.

By 2010, when the team from Factum Foundation undertook to scan the three doors on the unfinished façade as part of a larger restoration scheme directed by Cavina Terra Architetti (and carried out by the Opificio delle Pietre Dure and the restoration firm Leonardo), the central group of Joseph and Jesus was in a state of extreme fragility. Sections of the marble had denatured and dissolved as a result of time and exposure, a process probably accelerated by modern airborne pollutants and acid rain, and the arms of Jesus in particular, projecting from the main bulk of the statue, were in need of significant consolidation work.
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Written by: Elizabeth Mitchell, PHD in Greco-Roman archaeology from Harvard
University
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

In 2019, the Biblioteca Marciana started a project concerning a new philological edition of the H... more In 2019, the Biblioteca Marciana started a project concerning a new philological edition of the Heart-shaped map of Hajji Ahmed, involving the memoranda of understanding between the Venetian institutes of IUAV University and the Academy of Fine Arts. In February 2019, Factum Foundation collaborated with the IUAV CIRCE Photogrammetry Lab to record the original cherry-wood printing blocks in high-resolution. The recording was part of an initiative led by ARCHiVe (Analysis and Recording of Cultural Heritage in Venice), and was framed as a comparative study designed to assess the merits of three recording techniques: photogrammetry, laser scanning, and the Lucida 3D Scanner.
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Written by: Guendalina Damone, University of Udine
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

The work to record and replicate all 16 panels of the great Bolognese altarpiece, the Polittico G... more The work to record and replicate all 16 panels of the great Bolognese altarpiece, the Polittico Griffoni, painted in 1471–72 by Francesco del Cossa and Ercole de’ Roberti, lasted for several years between 2012 and 2018. It was not commissioned by any organisation – it simply started and gained momentum. It is a demonstration of how digital technology can create new ways of studying, displaying, sharing and experiencing a work of art.
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Written by Adam Lowe, Director of Factum Arte and the founder of Factum Foundation for Digital Technology in Conservation
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

Training and the transfer of skills are a vital part of Factum Foundation’s work. The Foundation’... more Training and the transfer of skills are a vital part of Factum Foundation’s work. The Foundation’s educational activities stretch from institutions with a long history of engagement with cutting-edge conservation methodologies (a Factum-led course at Columbia University’s Graduate School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation is now in its fourth year) to locations where the use of digital technology for conservation purposes has no secure existing foothold (teaching programmes have been established at Luxor in Egypt, Makhachkala in Dagestan and Upper Xingu in Brazil). A special emphasis is placed on training people to record their own heritage and on contributing to local economies – a recognition of local actors’ privileged perspective on, and privileged access to, heritage assets in their regions.

One important recent programme to support the dissemination of digital recording skills and technologies was that undertaken in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in autumn 2018.
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Written by: Otto Lowe, photogrammetry specialist for Factum Foundation’s 3D scanning team
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

Since 2004, Factum Arte and Factum Foundation have been working with the British Museum on a proj... more Since 2004, Factum Arte and Factum Foundation have been working with the British Museum on a project to send facsimiles of two lamassu to Mosul in Iraq. The colossal statues were excavated in the mid-19th century on the site of ancient Nimrud, a few miles from modern Mosul, but they were shipped to London in 1851. Although the lamassu were scanned at the British Museum in 2004, it was not until autumn 2019 that the facsimiles finally made the journey from Factum’s Madrid workshops to Iraq. They are now installed at the entrance to the student building at the University of Mosul, next to the burnt-out library where over one million manuscripts and documents were destroyed in 2016 by war and fundamentalism.
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Written by: Nicolas Béliard, Director of Communications for Factum Foundation and Factum Arte, and organiser of the initiative to transport the lamassu facsimiles to Mosul
Published in: The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality, edited by Adam Lowe, Elizabeth Mitchell, Nicolas Béliard, Giulia Fornaciari, Tess Tomassini, Blanca Nieto and Guendalina Damone, Silvana Editoriale, 2020

for ReACH (Reproduction of Art and Cultural Heritage), a global initiative launched by the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Peri Foundation
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New technologies permit highly accurate condition monitoring that can help the conservation community manage the changes brought about by a world population of over seven billion people.

Switching Codes. Thinking Through Digital Technology in the Humanities and the Arts, 2011

The Aura in the Age of Digital Materiality. Rethinking Preservation in the Shadow of an Uncertain Future, 2020

Our planet is now a human artifact in many significant ways. In what follows we offer a genealogy... more Our planet is now a human artifact in many significant ways. In what follows we offer a genealogy of ‘terra-forming’, culminating in a discussion of a proposed installation that will offer a critical and artistic reflection on the Anthropocene moment. ‘Terra-Forming’, the construction of a relief map of the surface of the globe without water, is our attempt to address the aesthetic dimension of geological time-marking, dissolving distinctions between art and science. This is a visceral and poetic proposal, aiming at sublime response in which reactions ‘well up’ to physically and emotionally reshape perceptions of the world. As water slowly covers our alabaster map, in a simulation of the great flood, it will hopefully suggest many applications and provoke a surge of conversations and ideas.

Intermédialités: Histoire et théorie des arts, des lettres et des techniques, 2011

En prenant l’exemple de la duplication par l’intermédiaire de techniques numériques des Noces de ... more En prenant l’exemple de la duplication par l’intermédiaire de techniques numériques des Noces de Cana de Véronèse et de son accrochage dans son lieu palladien d’origine à San Giorgio à Venise, les auteurs envisagent la possibilité d’un détachement de l’aura par rapport à l’oeuvre originale. Grâce aux nouvelles techniques de fac-similisation, l’aura pourrait s’attacher à l’une ou l’autre des reproductions selon la qualité de ce que l’on peut considérer être les versions d’une oeuvre et selon la réussite de leur inscription dans un lieu particulier. Selon cette nouvelle logique, parallèle à celle des arts performatifs, l’oeuvre originale ne serait plus qu’une matrice première, l’origine d’une longue lignée de reproductions qui viendrait l’actualiser. Et dans la mesure où tous les originaux devraient être reproduits pour « survivre », il importera désormais de savoir distinguer les bonnes des mauvaises reproductions.