Young Jae KIM | Korea National University of Cultural Heritage (original) (raw)
Papers by Young Jae KIM
Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea (SCOPUS), 2024
This study explores the background behind the architectural features, especially the layout and c... more This study explores the background behind the architectural features, especially the layout and composition, of the Buyeo Grand Shrine, renowned for its exceptional design among Japanese shrines. In the late 1930s, Japan promoted the construction of the Buyeo Grand Shrine on Busosan Mount as a commemorative project 2,600 years ago. Originally slated for completion in 1943, Japan invested significant resources in materials and labor. However, due to challenges in fundraising amid World War Two, the Shrine remained unfinished until Japan's defeat in 1945. The findings indicated that the architectural design of the Buyeo Grand Shrine was influenced by Japanese shrine styles from the mid-1930s. Bureaucratic engineers like Takashi Sunami actively introduced the Showa-jo style, prioritizing functionality to accommodate daily services, ancestral rites, and public worship. This approach involved connecting corridor transepts on the left and right sides to prayer recital and worship halls in the middle, inspired by the shinden style that arranged a group of buildings symmetrically, which was popular in Buddhist temples during the Momoyama and Kamakura periods. The layout and style of the Buyeo Grand Shrine resembled those of the Taiwan Grand Shrine, which held similar prominence among Japanese shrines during that era. This suggests a standardized architectural approach adopted by Japan for grand shrines during the era, reflecting the nation's architectural innovations and its religious and cultural aspirations.
Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea (SCOPUS), 2024
This study explores the plan to construct the Buyeo Grand Shrine, a significant project initiated... more This study explores the plan to construct the Buyeo Grand Shrine, a significant project initiated by the Japanese Government General of Korea in the late 1930s. Governor-General Minami Jiro emphasized that, alongside the shrine"s construction, the surrounding area known as the God"s Garden should be developed into a unified space that reflects the historical relationship between Japan and Korea. Due to its importance, Takanori Hongo, who had previously led the creation of divine garden parks in Japan after the Meiji Jingu Shrine, played a key role in developing the God"s Garden at Buyeo Grand Shrine. Hongo, drawing on his studies in Germany, introduced German forestry and ecological theories, promoting the cultivation of local vegetation and succession by planting trees suited to the region"s climate. He advocated for maintaining the God"s Garden as a natural forest with minimal human intervention over time. The Buyeo Grand Shrine incorporated German tree-planting techniques into the design of God"s Garden, following the Meiji Jingu model introduced by Japanese scholars who had studied in Germany. Although modern ecological theories were applied to create a natural forest, this effort was disconnected from the goal of creating a landscape representative of all Korea. In fact, while promoting the architectural style of Buyeo Grand Shrine, the Japanese government pushed for the adoption of a Joseon-style divine shrine, aiming to introduce a universal East Asian architectural form. Ultimately, the Buyeo Grand Shrine appears to have been a rhetorical tool designed to deceive the people of Joseon, driven by imperial ambitions, and intended to reinforce the structure of permanent colonial rule.
Architecutural Research, 2014
The objective of this article, positively recognizing existing researches, is to revisit some asp... more The objective of this article, positively recognizing existing researches, is to revisit some aspects regarding the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala with a square grid work which is a fundamental planning guideline to control the construction of a Hindu temple and a mathematical doctrine to lead ritual programs. Hence, this paper suggests some reservations as to certain details such as temple constructions. In order to lay hold on its meaning, this paper touches upon the specific matters about the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala in the building construction of Hindu temples, which set out to shed light on four concerns; first, it explores the formation process of the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala in concert with the evolution of Hindu temples over time; second, it considers differences and similarities in comparison with other texts intimately articulated with the construction of temples, and then understands the relationship between their local languages and applications to the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala; third, it examines the symbolic and sanctified process of the temple' s construction on the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala grids with two-or three-dimensional computer graphics (by means of the Auto Cad and Rhino tools), invisibly situating the divinities within it and illuminating the roles of ornamentation in the structural terms of temples; fourth, it presents that there are another rules on the building construction based upon architect-priest' s craftsmanship skilled as a stonemason or a carpenter in the manual processes of the temples' construction for proper measurements and truncations of stone and wood closely linked together structural stability of completed temples. In conclusion, proceeding from what has been said above, this thesis shows that the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala grid includes both practical and spiritual meanings to construct a Hindu temple.
journal of the Regional Association of Architectural Institute of Korea, 2015
This thesis explores that the symbolic meanings of the stupas, as a result of both the transition... more This thesis explores that the symbolic meanings of the stupas, as a result of both the transition of pre-Buddhist monuments and the mixture of Vedic, Jaina, and Buddhist tradition, were formed converging with such regional constructions as smasana, aiduka(eduka), Bodhi-ghara, ritual altars, pillars(yupa, skambha, and yasti), and dome-shaped huts. Also, the paper understand that, during the Buddhist period, the implication and function of the stupas were united into a mausoleum, joining hands with the primitive notion of smasana and aiduka(eduka), and then were more developed for the Buddha's relics, an honorific hut to memorize the Buddha, a shrine for the Buddha, a sacred place in the Buddha's biography, and a dwelling structure housing the living presence of the Buddha within its relic chamber. The study further shows that the symbolic meaning and functional purposes of the stupa was converged depending on the regional preferences of Vedic monuments and the structural vocabularies of Buddhist sacred sites. Hence, this research shows the stupa was developed with the selective adoption of the pre-Buddhist building types by local preferences, in the preservation of the varied symbolic meaning according to each locality, and through the employment of universal notions such as a chamber, a mound, an altar, a pillar, a place, and a hut.
Architectural research, 2011
This study notices that all religions in Central Asia from the fourth century through seventh cen... more This study notices that all religions in Central Asia from the fourth century through seventh century C.E. provided considerable hands in keeping a uniform unity through a process of assimilation, although art and architecture were greatly stimulated by the creative genius of the many people. The study thus intends to argue that the common ideas of rituals and primitive forms of religious shrines lead the square-based layout of Buddhist shrines the unity and universality in the architectural products of particular regions or epochs: i.e. the "square-based plan" in Buddhist temples of Central Asia was a significant prototype in the synthesis with pre-Buddhist architectural models and Buddhist universal ideas. Thus, this thesis notes that they did not lose the universal principles of the Buddhist shrine plans due to ritual functions, and even there have been never differences from pre-Buddhist building models remarked by the periods and the venues in which they were produced, although there had been continuous evolutions and adaptive transformations in the local tastes of religious architecture. Accordingly, this study discusses how such plans in Buddhist architecture had been consistently produced within that regional style also representative of the local idioms of architecture, and how they were adopted in the sites, founded on the composition of ritual functions. The foreign architectural cultures were selectively chosen getting along with local building types of each site according to each taste for architecture as a result.
ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH, 2016
This thesis explores Vitruvius and his impact upon other Renaissance architects who compare a cit... more This thesis explores Vitruvius and his impact upon other Renaissance architects who compare a city to a building or a building to a city, who match the city and the building into a human body, and who develop their own works. The objective of this study is to furnish an interpretation of their theory and practice through their literature and designs. In this point of view, this article takes notice of Vitruvius' s six concepts coined from venustas and divides them into two parts: i.e. aesthetic quality (ordinatio, dispositio, and distributio) and technical activity (eurythmia, symmetria, and décor) each. This thesis indicates that Vitruvius' s successive impacts from the concepts bring about concrete design principles through proportional measurements, placing together, and hierarchic values for the former, as well as appropriate use through beautiful look, symmetrical harmony, and appropriate uses for the latter, tracking notions between a city as a house and vice versa, and either the ideas of the house or the city in the synthesis of the human body, which follows the perfect number and module based on the human body. The thesis shows that the representations of architecture and the city take place with the form of a circle and a square that express the religious belief and the cosmos, substantiating the connection between the proportions of the human body and numbers, and ultimately satisfying a concept of centrality, which is slowly extended to the enclosed plaza at the urban level from chambers, atrium, and corridors at the residence level.
ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH, 2015
This article examines spatial concepts of urban design led by Camillo Sitte (1843-1903) and its i... more This article examines spatial concepts of urban design led by Camillo Sitte (1843-1903) and its influences. Sitte infused the fervor of city planning as an initiator, and his achievements affected Adolf Loos (1870-1933). Thus, this thesis, with regard to Sitte' s penchants concerning urban design, focuses on two matters in order to understand Camillo Sitte' s efforts to invent a new method on modern city planning and its influence on an architect: first, it deals with his urban studies, theories, and practices on city planning that consider communal living and everyday life and urban typology as well; second, it discusses how his urban ideas are accepted by Adolf Loos. Conclusively, through the investigations on Sitte' s movement on city planning and its influence on Adolf Loos, this study clarifies Sitte' s efforts to improve urban life and its milieus, and then Loos' s efforts to adopt Sitte' s criticisms and then re-interpret them in tune with the modern way of living as well. As a result, this thesis shows that they suggested new methods in performing dialectic designs, drawing on the picturesque and modern tradition, although their difference is differentiated from the sense of space, exterior vs. interior, i.e. Raumkunst vs. Raumplan.
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 2018
Various efforts are needed to understand the construction principle of wooden architecture in the... more Various efforts are needed to understand the construction principle of wooden architecture in the premodern era, as theoretical literature on this topic is lacking. This study shows that wooden construction methods are divided into two categories consisting of piled-up and integrated structures. The primary difference between the two categories is that the former is supported by a structural system weighted by a load from above, whereas the latter involves strengthening of the combination itself. In Korea, the framed system seen in a partially integrated structure is confirmed based on the structure of a piled-up framework. The Sungnyemun Gate is a representative example, and exemplifies piled-up techniques with a structural stability that is grounded by the load. However, the building's interior is characterized by the active adoption of pass-through columns employed in the integrated structure. Such structural compromise results in great changes. When the authors examine the joining parts of major timber-framed structures like the Sungnyemun Gate, at its completion, it had weak joining connections in the piled-up structure; however, after several repairs, it was strengthened with an integrated structure. This thesis examines a regional peculiarity of the wooden architecture that adopted eclectic styles based on the piled-up structure.
Religions, 2019
Ancient books on East Asian mathematics introduced to the Korean Peninsula enrich our understandi... more Ancient books on East Asian mathematics introduced to the Korean Peninsula enrich our understanding of the arithmetic notions that mold the creative thought processes of the ancients. They believed that all objects in the universe could be composed of circles and squares and all items could be expressed in terms of geometrical profiles. Through the combination of circles and squares, the ancient East Asians expressed the order of the world and unraveled it mathematically. These principles are evident in the construction principles of early Korean stone pagodas. In particular, the square root of 2 (√ 2) is a very important number in the delineation represented in the consolidation of inscribed and circumscribed circles with squares. Further, the square root of 2 is applied as a design principle in the construction of the stone pagodas at the temples Chȏngnimsa and Kamȗnsa. This article demonstrates that the ancients on the continuous impact of the Jiuzhang Suanshu and the Zhoubi Suanshu constructed the pagodas complying with design principles based on the arithmetic and geometric proportional systems of √ 2 times, which are intended to adjust compositional proportions and the gradual decrease in length to shape the tripartite partition of the foundation, the pagoda body, and the finial in stone pagodas.
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 2017
Archaeological discoveries have enriched our understanding of the tectonic traditions that underl... more Archaeological discoveries have enriched our understanding of the tectonic traditions that underlie the evolution of ancient building technologies. In ancient China, the natural environment, in particular local climate and abundant building materials, along with the development of agricultural tools, shaped the unique local architectural types referred to as Jinggan, earth constructions that originated in the north of China, and Ganlan and Chuandou that originated in the south. This paper discusses the origin and evolution of each building type, as well as the process of merging the wood-based frames developed in the south of China with the earth-and-wood frames developed in the north. This new integration enabled an advanced jointing technology connecting wood columns and beams, and resulted in the wooden structural Tailiang method for the synthesis of framed and piled-up structures. We therefore argue that, on the basis of examples of such fusion in China as well as in other east Asian countries, integration was established via a strong vernacular foundation building on architectural tectonic recognition that helps us understand ancient Asian architecture.
Religions, 2021
This study examines how the wooden architecture of the Goryeo Dynasty in Korea evolved in an orig... more This study examines how the wooden architecture of the Goryeo Dynasty in Korea evolved in an original way while incorporating Chinese architectural principles. For the Goryeo Era’s timber-framed buildings, eave purlin height was determined according to √2H times the eave column height (H), while the eave column height influenced the proportional location of each purlin, determined by the √2H times decrease rate in the cross-section. Thus, eave column height was proportionately connected to a geometric sequence with a common ratio of √2H. This technical approach, achieved using an L-square ruler and a drawing compass, contributed to determining eave purlin and ridge post placement, bracket system height, and outermost bay width. This study notes that the practical works were consistently preserved in East Asian Buddhist architecture, in that a universal rule of proportion was applied to buildings constructed during the Tang–Song and the Goryeo Dynasties, surmounting differences in local construction methods. These design principles were a vestige of socio-cultural exchange on the East Asian continent and a minimal step toward the establishment of structurally safe framed buildings.
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 2019
The mathematics references in ancient China, the Zhoubi Suanjing and the Jiuzhang Suanshu, presen... more The mathematics references in ancient China, the Zhoubi Suanjing and the Jiuzhang Suanshu, present information on formative ideas of ancient people and their perception of objects. The introduction to the Yingzao Fashi mentions mathematical sources, including the Zhoubi Suanjing. Both of these books focus on the philosophical concept of Tianyuan difang (Heaven is round and Earth is square), as well as inscribed and circumscribed circles. The square root of 2(√2), which can be derived from this part, proves to be an essential criterion for building, seen in Korea, China, and Japan. Using the exemplary Koryŏ building, the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery, this thesis shows that the standard ground plan width of the outermost bay has a √2 ratio to the central bay width. Its cross-section, likewise, proves that √2 times or twice the distance or height (relying on the height of the eave columns) are applied to the distance or height between each column and purlin in the application of arithmetic and geometric concepts. In the future, this work will be a reference for the reconstruction design of ancient buildings prior to the Koryŏ period, analogous to the Muryangsujŏn Hall.
Religions, 2021
Pure land comes from the Indian term “sukha,” which means welfare and happiness. However, in East... more Pure land comes from the Indian term “sukha,” which means welfare and happiness. However, in East Asia, Buddhism has been associated with the theological concepts of the immortal realm in the bond of death and afterlife. This study reviews detailed conception of Pure Land architecture in Sanskrit literature, as well as Buddhist sutras. The thesis notes that the conceptual explanation of Pure Land architecture, which describes the real world, becomes more concrete over time. Such detailed expression is revealed through the depiction of the transformation tableau. Hence, through Pure Land architecture situated on Earth, this research shows that Buddhist monks and laypeople hope for their own happy and wealthy settlement in the Pure Land. The building’s expression of transformation tableaux influences the layout and shape of Buddhist temples built in the mundane real world at that time. Moreover, this study notes that Bulguksa Monastery is a cumulative product of U-shaped central-axis arrangements with courtyards, terraced platforms, high-rise pavilions, and lotus ponds, plus an integrated synthesis of religious behaviors by votaries as a system of rituals. Further, it merges pre-Buddhist practices and other Buddhist subdivisions’ notions with Hwaeom thought, in comparison with Hojoji and Byodoin Temples that follow the Pure Land tradition.
Buildings, 2022
The Dondae forts of Ganghwa Island in the late Joseon dynasty are significant as a maritime defen... more The Dondae forts of Ganghwa Island in the late Joseon dynasty are significant as a maritime defense heritage. Thus far, research on Dondae has focused on historical sources. This study concentrates on essential interpretation to comprehend the vernacular architectural characteristics of the forts as a fixed facility. Confirming the purpose of the construction provides a deeper understanding of the appearance of the late Joseon dynasty beyond the current modified Ganghwa Dondae. This study utilizes standard models of fort architecture established during King Sukjong’s regime and confirms the unique value of military forts, which evolved through a myriad of political changes. Furthermore, this study addresses the sustainable conservation of fort architecture through the continual reuse of the yeongjochek (a construction measurement unit), even though combat techniques had been ceaselessly advanced for the more efficient discharge of cannons. The construction activities of Dondae forts in the 18th century unveil a management system in pre-modern times that is comparable to the modern model in terms of repetitive repairs and incessant production, designed to support military purposes based on norms established during the planning stage. Sustainable architectural models have been standardized since pre-modern times and allow the continued production and conservation of monuments for future generations.
International Journal of Heritage Studies, 2022
This research explores an impasse in the listing of Hashima Island, also called Gunkanjima as a U... more This research explores an impasse in the listing of Hashima Island, also called Gunkanjima as a UNESCO World Heritage site as a symbol of Meiji innovation. The debate centres on authenticity in the site designation process. To overcome this debate and ensure the site's sustainable con-ARTICLE HISTORY
Frontiers of Architectural Research, 2023
This study aims to create a basis for sustainable conservation by identifying the heritage value ... more This study aims to create a basis for sustainable conservation by identifying the heritage value of 166 Ikseon-dong. Based on old land registers and cadastral maps of the 1920s and 1930s, it interpreted the construction procedure, social background, and urban architectural characteristics of the road and plot subdivision of the modern Hanok district. Ikseon-dong Hanok produced four types of ground plans based on the grid-street system. This study argues that these innovative experiments have already been attempted through Bak Young-hyo's proposals in his Geonbaekseo and the architectural activities of Jeong Segwon, and that the idea of applying various housing types, layouts, and grid-street system planning was embodied through the development of the Hanok complex in Ikseon-dong. Further, this attempt greatly influenced the design of other Hanok complexes built in colonial Gyeongseong after 1936, taking the Ikseon-dong Hanok as a role model. The radiation of new perspectives will be a groundwork for the future sustainable conservation of heritage places.
Buildings, 2023
Previous research has agreed that standard modular methods in Song Yingzao Fashi and Qing Gongche... more Previous research has agreed that standard modular methods in Song Yingzao Fashi and Qing Gongcheng Zuofa were not applied to Korean wooden architecture. This study notes the size of bracket arms as a standard modular method by investigating the proportion systems of Sungnyemun, Paldalmun, and Heunginjimun Gates, the official government buildings of the Joseon Dynasty. The purlin direction bracket arms in the intercolumnar bracket sets apply a proportional system in the ratio of a regular integer relationship to the front and side facades and building height. Challenging current assumptions, the application of the bracket arm width as a modular rule is divided into more subdivided values than the measurement units. A particularly important finding is that, unlike the height of the bracket arms, the width and length of the brackets are standard members that determine the height of the side facades. This is very similar to the official government building styles in the Song and Qing Dynasties, premodern China. Therefore, this study is meaningful in reassessing wooden frame structures of the Joseon era, deriving parametric measuring rules universally applied in East Asia to provide basic data useful for heritage conservation.
Korea Journal, 2023
This study is an attempt to rethink from a social and cultural point of view the historical and c... more This study is an attempt to rethink from a social and cultural point of view the historical and cultural importance of Anseong Catholic Church, South Korea, in the local community. Anseong Catholic Church was established in 1901 when Father Antoine Gombert (1875-1950) arrived in Anseong and officially began his missionary work. Anseong Catholic Church has played an important role in local society by working with the residents of Anseong during tumultuous periods, including the opening of ports, the Japanese occupation, and the modern periods. For more than a century, Anseong Catholic Church has served as the parish center of the Anseong and Pyeongtaek Catholic Churches while helping Catholicism become established in Anseong. This study reexamines the value and historical significance of Anseong Catholic Church, from four perspectives: religion, education, social work, and the March First Movement. Specifically, the study examines first, the value of Anseong Catholic Church in introducing Catholicism to southern Gyeonggi-do province; second, the historical value of Anseong Catholic Church in laying the foundation for modern education in Anseong; third, the value of Anseong Catholic Church as the center of social and charity work in Anseong; and fourth, the role of the Anseong Catholic Church in germinating democracy after the March First Movement during the Japanese occupation.
Religions, 2024
This study investigates the rationale behind the combination of Buddha mahāstūpas (mahācetiyas) a... more This study investigates the rationale behind the combination of Buddha mahāstūpas (mahācetiyas) and cetiyas (caityas) within a Buddhist monastery. In integrating a broader intellectual program, the universality of the concept is exemplified, wherein “mahācetiya and cetiya” are combined to symbolize the life of Buddha through architectural arrangements. Adopting a broader intellectual program grounded in the causality principle signifies an inclination toward universality. These combinations represent sacred places and events in Buddha’s life, from birth to Mahaparinirvana. They encompass significant moments, such as great departures, meditation, enlightenment, and preaching. The synthesis of mahācetiyas and apsidal shrines was a pivotal moment at the site, guided by the Mahāsaṅghika School, representing an innovative invention in the pursuit of narrative framing of Buddha’s biography.
Religions, 2024
This study conducts a comparative analysis of Buddhist sacred structures throughout Asia, focusin... more This study conducts a comparative analysis of Buddhist sacred structures throughout Asia, focusing on the historical development, regional disparities, and the cultural sinification process of stūpas, caityas, and pagodas. Specifically, it delves into the origins, definitions, and terminologies of early Buddhist monuments, such as stūpas/mahācetiyas and caityas/cetiyas, emphasizing their Indian origins. The research further explores the adaptation and reinterpretation of these original Indian concepts as they spread to East Asia, morphing into new forms, such as pagodas and Buddha halls. It examines the subtle shifts in terminology and the altered meanings and functions of these monuments, from their Indian origins to their sinified representations in East Asia. The transformation of Indian Buddhist monuments through local culture and technology into East Asian architectural forms is investigated, offering a detailed perspective on the dynamic transformation of sacred spaces in Buddhism. This illustrates the religion’s adaptability and integration with the local cultures of ancient East Asia. By analyzing the terminologies and symbolic meanings associated with the architectural transition from stūpa to pagoda, the study argues that sinicized ritual spaces in East Asia have adopted architectural types from pre-Buddhist traditions to represent Indian spaces, thereby highlighting the nuanced changes and the continuous adaptation of sacred Buddhist architecture.
Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea (SCOPUS), 2024
This study explores the background behind the architectural features, especially the layout and c... more This study explores the background behind the architectural features, especially the layout and composition, of the Buyeo Grand Shrine, renowned for its exceptional design among Japanese shrines. In the late 1930s, Japan promoted the construction of the Buyeo Grand Shrine on Busosan Mount as a commemorative project 2,600 years ago. Originally slated for completion in 1943, Japan invested significant resources in materials and labor. However, due to challenges in fundraising amid World War Two, the Shrine remained unfinished until Japan's defeat in 1945. The findings indicated that the architectural design of the Buyeo Grand Shrine was influenced by Japanese shrine styles from the mid-1930s. Bureaucratic engineers like Takashi Sunami actively introduced the Showa-jo style, prioritizing functionality to accommodate daily services, ancestral rites, and public worship. This approach involved connecting corridor transepts on the left and right sides to prayer recital and worship halls in the middle, inspired by the shinden style that arranged a group of buildings symmetrically, which was popular in Buddhist temples during the Momoyama and Kamakura periods. The layout and style of the Buyeo Grand Shrine resembled those of the Taiwan Grand Shrine, which held similar prominence among Japanese shrines during that era. This suggests a standardized architectural approach adopted by Japan for grand shrines during the era, reflecting the nation's architectural innovations and its religious and cultural aspirations.
Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea (SCOPUS), 2024
This study explores the plan to construct the Buyeo Grand Shrine, a significant project initiated... more This study explores the plan to construct the Buyeo Grand Shrine, a significant project initiated by the Japanese Government General of Korea in the late 1930s. Governor-General Minami Jiro emphasized that, alongside the shrine"s construction, the surrounding area known as the God"s Garden should be developed into a unified space that reflects the historical relationship between Japan and Korea. Due to its importance, Takanori Hongo, who had previously led the creation of divine garden parks in Japan after the Meiji Jingu Shrine, played a key role in developing the God"s Garden at Buyeo Grand Shrine. Hongo, drawing on his studies in Germany, introduced German forestry and ecological theories, promoting the cultivation of local vegetation and succession by planting trees suited to the region"s climate. He advocated for maintaining the God"s Garden as a natural forest with minimal human intervention over time. The Buyeo Grand Shrine incorporated German tree-planting techniques into the design of God"s Garden, following the Meiji Jingu model introduced by Japanese scholars who had studied in Germany. Although modern ecological theories were applied to create a natural forest, this effort was disconnected from the goal of creating a landscape representative of all Korea. In fact, while promoting the architectural style of Buyeo Grand Shrine, the Japanese government pushed for the adoption of a Joseon-style divine shrine, aiming to introduce a universal East Asian architectural form. Ultimately, the Buyeo Grand Shrine appears to have been a rhetorical tool designed to deceive the people of Joseon, driven by imperial ambitions, and intended to reinforce the structure of permanent colonial rule.
Architecutural Research, 2014
The objective of this article, positively recognizing existing researches, is to revisit some asp... more The objective of this article, positively recognizing existing researches, is to revisit some aspects regarding the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala with a square grid work which is a fundamental planning guideline to control the construction of a Hindu temple and a mathematical doctrine to lead ritual programs. Hence, this paper suggests some reservations as to certain details such as temple constructions. In order to lay hold on its meaning, this paper touches upon the specific matters about the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala in the building construction of Hindu temples, which set out to shed light on four concerns; first, it explores the formation process of the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala in concert with the evolution of Hindu temples over time; second, it considers differences and similarities in comparison with other texts intimately articulated with the construction of temples, and then understands the relationship between their local languages and applications to the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala; third, it examines the symbolic and sanctified process of the temple' s construction on the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala grids with two-or three-dimensional computer graphics (by means of the Auto Cad and Rhino tools), invisibly situating the divinities within it and illuminating the roles of ornamentation in the structural terms of temples; fourth, it presents that there are another rules on the building construction based upon architect-priest' s craftsmanship skilled as a stonemason or a carpenter in the manual processes of the temples' construction for proper measurements and truncations of stone and wood closely linked together structural stability of completed temples. In conclusion, proceeding from what has been said above, this thesis shows that the Vāstupuruṣamaṇḍala grid includes both practical and spiritual meanings to construct a Hindu temple.
journal of the Regional Association of Architectural Institute of Korea, 2015
This thesis explores that the symbolic meanings of the stupas, as a result of both the transition... more This thesis explores that the symbolic meanings of the stupas, as a result of both the transition of pre-Buddhist monuments and the mixture of Vedic, Jaina, and Buddhist tradition, were formed converging with such regional constructions as smasana, aiduka(eduka), Bodhi-ghara, ritual altars, pillars(yupa, skambha, and yasti), and dome-shaped huts. Also, the paper understand that, during the Buddhist period, the implication and function of the stupas were united into a mausoleum, joining hands with the primitive notion of smasana and aiduka(eduka), and then were more developed for the Buddha's relics, an honorific hut to memorize the Buddha, a shrine for the Buddha, a sacred place in the Buddha's biography, and a dwelling structure housing the living presence of the Buddha within its relic chamber. The study further shows that the symbolic meaning and functional purposes of the stupa was converged depending on the regional preferences of Vedic monuments and the structural vocabularies of Buddhist sacred sites. Hence, this research shows the stupa was developed with the selective adoption of the pre-Buddhist building types by local preferences, in the preservation of the varied symbolic meaning according to each locality, and through the employment of universal notions such as a chamber, a mound, an altar, a pillar, a place, and a hut.
Architectural research, 2011
This study notices that all religions in Central Asia from the fourth century through seventh cen... more This study notices that all religions in Central Asia from the fourth century through seventh century C.E. provided considerable hands in keeping a uniform unity through a process of assimilation, although art and architecture were greatly stimulated by the creative genius of the many people. The study thus intends to argue that the common ideas of rituals and primitive forms of religious shrines lead the square-based layout of Buddhist shrines the unity and universality in the architectural products of particular regions or epochs: i.e. the "square-based plan" in Buddhist temples of Central Asia was a significant prototype in the synthesis with pre-Buddhist architectural models and Buddhist universal ideas. Thus, this thesis notes that they did not lose the universal principles of the Buddhist shrine plans due to ritual functions, and even there have been never differences from pre-Buddhist building models remarked by the periods and the venues in which they were produced, although there had been continuous evolutions and adaptive transformations in the local tastes of religious architecture. Accordingly, this study discusses how such plans in Buddhist architecture had been consistently produced within that regional style also representative of the local idioms of architecture, and how they were adopted in the sites, founded on the composition of ritual functions. The foreign architectural cultures were selectively chosen getting along with local building types of each site according to each taste for architecture as a result.
ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH, 2016
This thesis explores Vitruvius and his impact upon other Renaissance architects who compare a cit... more This thesis explores Vitruvius and his impact upon other Renaissance architects who compare a city to a building or a building to a city, who match the city and the building into a human body, and who develop their own works. The objective of this study is to furnish an interpretation of their theory and practice through their literature and designs. In this point of view, this article takes notice of Vitruvius' s six concepts coined from venustas and divides them into two parts: i.e. aesthetic quality (ordinatio, dispositio, and distributio) and technical activity (eurythmia, symmetria, and décor) each. This thesis indicates that Vitruvius' s successive impacts from the concepts bring about concrete design principles through proportional measurements, placing together, and hierarchic values for the former, as well as appropriate use through beautiful look, symmetrical harmony, and appropriate uses for the latter, tracking notions between a city as a house and vice versa, and either the ideas of the house or the city in the synthesis of the human body, which follows the perfect number and module based on the human body. The thesis shows that the representations of architecture and the city take place with the form of a circle and a square that express the religious belief and the cosmos, substantiating the connection between the proportions of the human body and numbers, and ultimately satisfying a concept of centrality, which is slowly extended to the enclosed plaza at the urban level from chambers, atrium, and corridors at the residence level.
ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH, 2015
This article examines spatial concepts of urban design led by Camillo Sitte (1843-1903) and its i... more This article examines spatial concepts of urban design led by Camillo Sitte (1843-1903) and its influences. Sitte infused the fervor of city planning as an initiator, and his achievements affected Adolf Loos (1870-1933). Thus, this thesis, with regard to Sitte' s penchants concerning urban design, focuses on two matters in order to understand Camillo Sitte' s efforts to invent a new method on modern city planning and its influence on an architect: first, it deals with his urban studies, theories, and practices on city planning that consider communal living and everyday life and urban typology as well; second, it discusses how his urban ideas are accepted by Adolf Loos. Conclusively, through the investigations on Sitte' s movement on city planning and its influence on Adolf Loos, this study clarifies Sitte' s efforts to improve urban life and its milieus, and then Loos' s efforts to adopt Sitte' s criticisms and then re-interpret them in tune with the modern way of living as well. As a result, this thesis shows that they suggested new methods in performing dialectic designs, drawing on the picturesque and modern tradition, although their difference is differentiated from the sense of space, exterior vs. interior, i.e. Raumkunst vs. Raumplan.
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 2018
Various efforts are needed to understand the construction principle of wooden architecture in the... more Various efforts are needed to understand the construction principle of wooden architecture in the premodern era, as theoretical literature on this topic is lacking. This study shows that wooden construction methods are divided into two categories consisting of piled-up and integrated structures. The primary difference between the two categories is that the former is supported by a structural system weighted by a load from above, whereas the latter involves strengthening of the combination itself. In Korea, the framed system seen in a partially integrated structure is confirmed based on the structure of a piled-up framework. The Sungnyemun Gate is a representative example, and exemplifies piled-up techniques with a structural stability that is grounded by the load. However, the building's interior is characterized by the active adoption of pass-through columns employed in the integrated structure. Such structural compromise results in great changes. When the authors examine the joining parts of major timber-framed structures like the Sungnyemun Gate, at its completion, it had weak joining connections in the piled-up structure; however, after several repairs, it was strengthened with an integrated structure. This thesis examines a regional peculiarity of the wooden architecture that adopted eclectic styles based on the piled-up structure.
Religions, 2019
Ancient books on East Asian mathematics introduced to the Korean Peninsula enrich our understandi... more Ancient books on East Asian mathematics introduced to the Korean Peninsula enrich our understanding of the arithmetic notions that mold the creative thought processes of the ancients. They believed that all objects in the universe could be composed of circles and squares and all items could be expressed in terms of geometrical profiles. Through the combination of circles and squares, the ancient East Asians expressed the order of the world and unraveled it mathematically. These principles are evident in the construction principles of early Korean stone pagodas. In particular, the square root of 2 (√ 2) is a very important number in the delineation represented in the consolidation of inscribed and circumscribed circles with squares. Further, the square root of 2 is applied as a design principle in the construction of the stone pagodas at the temples Chȏngnimsa and Kamȗnsa. This article demonstrates that the ancients on the continuous impact of the Jiuzhang Suanshu and the Zhoubi Suanshu constructed the pagodas complying with design principles based on the arithmetic and geometric proportional systems of √ 2 times, which are intended to adjust compositional proportions and the gradual decrease in length to shape the tripartite partition of the foundation, the pagoda body, and the finial in stone pagodas.
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 2017
Archaeological discoveries have enriched our understanding of the tectonic traditions that underl... more Archaeological discoveries have enriched our understanding of the tectonic traditions that underlie the evolution of ancient building technologies. In ancient China, the natural environment, in particular local climate and abundant building materials, along with the development of agricultural tools, shaped the unique local architectural types referred to as Jinggan, earth constructions that originated in the north of China, and Ganlan and Chuandou that originated in the south. This paper discusses the origin and evolution of each building type, as well as the process of merging the wood-based frames developed in the south of China with the earth-and-wood frames developed in the north. This new integration enabled an advanced jointing technology connecting wood columns and beams, and resulted in the wooden structural Tailiang method for the synthesis of framed and piled-up structures. We therefore argue that, on the basis of examples of such fusion in China as well as in other east Asian countries, integration was established via a strong vernacular foundation building on architectural tectonic recognition that helps us understand ancient Asian architecture.
Religions, 2021
This study examines how the wooden architecture of the Goryeo Dynasty in Korea evolved in an orig... more This study examines how the wooden architecture of the Goryeo Dynasty in Korea evolved in an original way while incorporating Chinese architectural principles. For the Goryeo Era’s timber-framed buildings, eave purlin height was determined according to √2H times the eave column height (H), while the eave column height influenced the proportional location of each purlin, determined by the √2H times decrease rate in the cross-section. Thus, eave column height was proportionately connected to a geometric sequence with a common ratio of √2H. This technical approach, achieved using an L-square ruler and a drawing compass, contributed to determining eave purlin and ridge post placement, bracket system height, and outermost bay width. This study notes that the practical works were consistently preserved in East Asian Buddhist architecture, in that a universal rule of proportion was applied to buildings constructed during the Tang–Song and the Goryeo Dynasties, surmounting differences in local construction methods. These design principles were a vestige of socio-cultural exchange on the East Asian continent and a minimal step toward the establishment of structurally safe framed buildings.
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 2019
The mathematics references in ancient China, the Zhoubi Suanjing and the Jiuzhang Suanshu, presen... more The mathematics references in ancient China, the Zhoubi Suanjing and the Jiuzhang Suanshu, present information on formative ideas of ancient people and their perception of objects. The introduction to the Yingzao Fashi mentions mathematical sources, including the Zhoubi Suanjing. Both of these books focus on the philosophical concept of Tianyuan difang (Heaven is round and Earth is square), as well as inscribed and circumscribed circles. The square root of 2(√2), which can be derived from this part, proves to be an essential criterion for building, seen in Korea, China, and Japan. Using the exemplary Koryŏ building, the Muryangsujŏn Hall at Pusŏksa Buddhist Monastery, this thesis shows that the standard ground plan width of the outermost bay has a √2 ratio to the central bay width. Its cross-section, likewise, proves that √2 times or twice the distance or height (relying on the height of the eave columns) are applied to the distance or height between each column and purlin in the application of arithmetic and geometric concepts. In the future, this work will be a reference for the reconstruction design of ancient buildings prior to the Koryŏ period, analogous to the Muryangsujŏn Hall.
Religions, 2021
Pure land comes from the Indian term “sukha,” which means welfare and happiness. However, in East... more Pure land comes from the Indian term “sukha,” which means welfare and happiness. However, in East Asia, Buddhism has been associated with the theological concepts of the immortal realm in the bond of death and afterlife. This study reviews detailed conception of Pure Land architecture in Sanskrit literature, as well as Buddhist sutras. The thesis notes that the conceptual explanation of Pure Land architecture, which describes the real world, becomes more concrete over time. Such detailed expression is revealed through the depiction of the transformation tableau. Hence, through Pure Land architecture situated on Earth, this research shows that Buddhist monks and laypeople hope for their own happy and wealthy settlement in the Pure Land. The building’s expression of transformation tableaux influences the layout and shape of Buddhist temples built in the mundane real world at that time. Moreover, this study notes that Bulguksa Monastery is a cumulative product of U-shaped central-axis arrangements with courtyards, terraced platforms, high-rise pavilions, and lotus ponds, plus an integrated synthesis of religious behaviors by votaries as a system of rituals. Further, it merges pre-Buddhist practices and other Buddhist subdivisions’ notions with Hwaeom thought, in comparison with Hojoji and Byodoin Temples that follow the Pure Land tradition.
Buildings, 2022
The Dondae forts of Ganghwa Island in the late Joseon dynasty are significant as a maritime defen... more The Dondae forts of Ganghwa Island in the late Joseon dynasty are significant as a maritime defense heritage. Thus far, research on Dondae has focused on historical sources. This study concentrates on essential interpretation to comprehend the vernacular architectural characteristics of the forts as a fixed facility. Confirming the purpose of the construction provides a deeper understanding of the appearance of the late Joseon dynasty beyond the current modified Ganghwa Dondae. This study utilizes standard models of fort architecture established during King Sukjong’s regime and confirms the unique value of military forts, which evolved through a myriad of political changes. Furthermore, this study addresses the sustainable conservation of fort architecture through the continual reuse of the yeongjochek (a construction measurement unit), even though combat techniques had been ceaselessly advanced for the more efficient discharge of cannons. The construction activities of Dondae forts in the 18th century unveil a management system in pre-modern times that is comparable to the modern model in terms of repetitive repairs and incessant production, designed to support military purposes based on norms established during the planning stage. Sustainable architectural models have been standardized since pre-modern times and allow the continued production and conservation of monuments for future generations.
International Journal of Heritage Studies, 2022
This research explores an impasse in the listing of Hashima Island, also called Gunkanjima as a U... more This research explores an impasse in the listing of Hashima Island, also called Gunkanjima as a UNESCO World Heritage site as a symbol of Meiji innovation. The debate centres on authenticity in the site designation process. To overcome this debate and ensure the site's sustainable con-ARTICLE HISTORY
Frontiers of Architectural Research, 2023
This study aims to create a basis for sustainable conservation by identifying the heritage value ... more This study aims to create a basis for sustainable conservation by identifying the heritage value of 166 Ikseon-dong. Based on old land registers and cadastral maps of the 1920s and 1930s, it interpreted the construction procedure, social background, and urban architectural characteristics of the road and plot subdivision of the modern Hanok district. Ikseon-dong Hanok produced four types of ground plans based on the grid-street system. This study argues that these innovative experiments have already been attempted through Bak Young-hyo's proposals in his Geonbaekseo and the architectural activities of Jeong Segwon, and that the idea of applying various housing types, layouts, and grid-street system planning was embodied through the development of the Hanok complex in Ikseon-dong. Further, this attempt greatly influenced the design of other Hanok complexes built in colonial Gyeongseong after 1936, taking the Ikseon-dong Hanok as a role model. The radiation of new perspectives will be a groundwork for the future sustainable conservation of heritage places.
Buildings, 2023
Previous research has agreed that standard modular methods in Song Yingzao Fashi and Qing Gongche... more Previous research has agreed that standard modular methods in Song Yingzao Fashi and Qing Gongcheng Zuofa were not applied to Korean wooden architecture. This study notes the size of bracket arms as a standard modular method by investigating the proportion systems of Sungnyemun, Paldalmun, and Heunginjimun Gates, the official government buildings of the Joseon Dynasty. The purlin direction bracket arms in the intercolumnar bracket sets apply a proportional system in the ratio of a regular integer relationship to the front and side facades and building height. Challenging current assumptions, the application of the bracket arm width as a modular rule is divided into more subdivided values than the measurement units. A particularly important finding is that, unlike the height of the bracket arms, the width and length of the brackets are standard members that determine the height of the side facades. This is very similar to the official government building styles in the Song and Qing Dynasties, premodern China. Therefore, this study is meaningful in reassessing wooden frame structures of the Joseon era, deriving parametric measuring rules universally applied in East Asia to provide basic data useful for heritage conservation.
Korea Journal, 2023
This study is an attempt to rethink from a social and cultural point of view the historical and c... more This study is an attempt to rethink from a social and cultural point of view the historical and cultural importance of Anseong Catholic Church, South Korea, in the local community. Anseong Catholic Church was established in 1901 when Father Antoine Gombert (1875-1950) arrived in Anseong and officially began his missionary work. Anseong Catholic Church has played an important role in local society by working with the residents of Anseong during tumultuous periods, including the opening of ports, the Japanese occupation, and the modern periods. For more than a century, Anseong Catholic Church has served as the parish center of the Anseong and Pyeongtaek Catholic Churches while helping Catholicism become established in Anseong. This study reexamines the value and historical significance of Anseong Catholic Church, from four perspectives: religion, education, social work, and the March First Movement. Specifically, the study examines first, the value of Anseong Catholic Church in introducing Catholicism to southern Gyeonggi-do province; second, the historical value of Anseong Catholic Church in laying the foundation for modern education in Anseong; third, the value of Anseong Catholic Church as the center of social and charity work in Anseong; and fourth, the role of the Anseong Catholic Church in germinating democracy after the March First Movement during the Japanese occupation.
Religions, 2024
This study investigates the rationale behind the combination of Buddha mahāstūpas (mahācetiyas) a... more This study investigates the rationale behind the combination of Buddha mahāstūpas (mahācetiyas) and cetiyas (caityas) within a Buddhist monastery. In integrating a broader intellectual program, the universality of the concept is exemplified, wherein “mahācetiya and cetiya” are combined to symbolize the life of Buddha through architectural arrangements. Adopting a broader intellectual program grounded in the causality principle signifies an inclination toward universality. These combinations represent sacred places and events in Buddha’s life, from birth to Mahaparinirvana. They encompass significant moments, such as great departures, meditation, enlightenment, and preaching. The synthesis of mahācetiyas and apsidal shrines was a pivotal moment at the site, guided by the Mahāsaṅghika School, representing an innovative invention in the pursuit of narrative framing of Buddha’s biography.
Religions, 2024
This study conducts a comparative analysis of Buddhist sacred structures throughout Asia, focusin... more This study conducts a comparative analysis of Buddhist sacred structures throughout Asia, focusing on the historical development, regional disparities, and the cultural sinification process of stūpas, caityas, and pagodas. Specifically, it delves into the origins, definitions, and terminologies of early Buddhist monuments, such as stūpas/mahācetiyas and caityas/cetiyas, emphasizing their Indian origins. The research further explores the adaptation and reinterpretation of these original Indian concepts as they spread to East Asia, morphing into new forms, such as pagodas and Buddha halls. It examines the subtle shifts in terminology and the altered meanings and functions of these monuments, from their Indian origins to their sinified representations in East Asia. The transformation of Indian Buddhist monuments through local culture and technology into East Asian architectural forms is investigated, offering a detailed perspective on the dynamic transformation of sacred spaces in Buddhism. This illustrates the religion’s adaptability and integration with the local cultures of ancient East Asia. By analyzing the terminologies and symbolic meanings associated with the architectural transition from stūpa to pagoda, the study argues that sinicized ritual spaces in East Asia have adopted architectural types from pre-Buddhist traditions to represent Indian spaces, thereby highlighting the nuanced changes and the continuous adaptation of sacred Buddhist architecture.