Вице-президент для Дональда Трампа (original) (raw)
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Вице-президент для Дональда Трампа
Как только Дональд Трамп выиграл праймериз в штате Индиана и фактически обеспечил себе номинацию от Республиканской партии, начались спекуляции на тему: кто же будет его партнером на всеобщих выборах, т.е. кандидатом в вице-президенты...
«Вице-президентство — как последнее пирожное на тарелке.
Все уверяют, что не возьмут его. Но в конце концов кто-то всегда берет».
(Уильям Воган)
Не Карсон, не Кристи и не Кейсик
Как только Дональд Трамп триумфально выиграл праймериз в штате Индиана и фактически обеспечил себе номинацию от Республиканской партии, заставив Теда Круза и Джона Кейсика сняться с гонки, журналисты и эксперты начали спекуляции на тему: а кто же будет его партнером на всеобщих выборах (как говорят в Америке, running mate), т.е. кандидатом в вице-президенты в команде Трампа.
Пока в республиканских первичных выборах еще сохранялась хоть какая-то интрига, на место второго номера прочили кого-то из соперников Дональда. Считалось, что хорошие шансы есть как у поддержавших миллиардера Криса Кристи и Бена Карсона, так и у его явных антагонистов Джона Кейсика, Теда Круза и даже Марко Рубио.
Что касается кандидатуры Рубио, то родиться она могла только в головах неоконов, во всяком случае, той их части, которая не призывает до сих пор к ни к переходу в лагерь Хиллари (как это делает Роберт Кейган), ни к выдвижению на всеобщих выборах третьего, «истинно консервативного» кандидата (как Билл Кристол). Молодой, крайне неопытный политик, который полностью провалил свою кампанию и не смог стать даже вторым на праймериз в своем родном штате, Флорида, — это скорее отягощение для кампании Трампа, нежели ее усиление.
Круз мог бы в определенный момент быть полезным несистемному кандидату, снявшись в его пользу, и тогда, возможно, рассчитывать на некий пост в его будущей администрации, но он предпочел бороться до конца, отстаивая принципы Движения Чаепития. Сейчас он Трампу попросту не нужен. Дональд ведет сложные переговоры с куда более высокопоставленным и влиятельным правым консерватором из Республиканской партии — Полом Райаном.
Крис Кристи и Бен Карсон активно помогают Дональду Трампу в его кампании и теоретически все еще должны находиться в шорт-листе претендентов на вице, однако, во-первых, они будут куда полезнее на других должностях, а во-вторых, оба они не удовлетворяют важному критерию, который сформулировал сам Трамп.
В интервью телеканалу ABC News кандидат сказал:
«_Это [кандидат в вице-президенты] будет человек с большим политическим опытом… кто будет по-настоящему хорош в работе с Сенатом, да и в целом с Конгрессом, кто сможет помочь в принятии необходимых законодательных актов, работая таким образом, чтобы не приходилось вместо нормальной работы подписывать указы каждые три дня, как это делает президент Обама, что совершенно недопустимо_».
Отметим два важных аспекта.
Во-первых, вице-президент, согласно Конституции США, не только является вторым лицом исполнительной власти, но также занимает должность спикера Сената (если следовать букве основного закона — «президента Сената»). Есть в Америке такой конституционный казус. Тем не менее, исторически сложилась традиция неучастия вице-президента в делах Сената. Он председательствует в верхней палате Конгресса лишь по особым поводам: выступление президента с посланием к нации, утверждение решения коллегии выборщиков об избрании президента, а также в случаях, когда голоса в Сенате разделились поровну 50 на 50 (без вице-президента в Сенате заседает 100 законодателей). Так что, хотя Дональд Трамп подходит к подбору партнера по гонке, на мой взгляд, весьма взвешенно, он одновременно предлагает новое видение функционала второго лица государства.
Во-вторых, Трамп подает сигнал конгрессменам и избирателям, что собирается выстраивать конструктивные отношения между ветвями власти и что в качестве кандидата в вице-президенты мы увидим опытного и уважаемого члена (или бывшего члена) Конгресса.
Но это ход на перспективу, на будущее. Исторически кандидата в вице-президенты подбирают прежде всего с прицелом на выборы — так, чтобы «сбалансировать бюллетень» и обеспечить себе электоральный успех среди тех или иных групп избирателей в определенных штатах.
Так, если кандидат слишком радикален в своих взглядах, его штаб подбирает ему в пару более умеренного политика. Если кандидат, наоборот, довольно умеренный, его «оттеняет» человек, известный весьма крайними взглядами. В «комплекте» с северянином, как правило, идет южанин, с молодым — умудренный опытом. Всегда «в ходу» губернаторы колеблющихся штатов или популярные конгрессмены, эти штаты представляющие.
Исходя из вышесказанного, идеальным кандидатом в вице-президенты для Трампа был бы Джон Кейсик, который проработал 18 лет в Палате Представителей (в том числе 6 лет главой бюджетного комитета), а затем был дважды избран губернатором важнейшего для президентских выборов штата Огайо. Упорное нежелание Джона сниматься с гонки, несмотря на то, что уже в марте стало понятно, что его победа, исходя из результатов праймериз, математически невозможна, многими интерпретировалось как сдерживание Круза и Рубио в пользу Трампа. Аналитики углядели здесь тайный (или негласный) договор, согласно которому должность вице-президента достанется именно главе Огайо.
Однако недавно Кейсик в категоричной форме отверг для себя возможность стать партнером Дональда Трампа по президентской гонке. Вот что он ответил на прямой вопрос корреспондента телекомпании CNN:
«_Нет, я не намерен делать этого [отвечать положительно на предложение Трампа стать партнером по гонке, если таковое поступит]. Я с большим удовольствием возвращаюсь вместе со своей командой обратно в Огайо… Я уже несколько раз говорил, что у меня вторая по важности работа в стране…_».
Вторая по важности — губернатор, а не вице-президент? Что имел в виде Джон Кейсик? Ответ на этот вопрос, я думаю, не всё, но очень многое прояснит в вице-президентской проблеме Трампа.
Быть вице-президентом
В словах губернатора Огайо есть сермяжная правда. Вице-президент — престижная должность, но, согласно законодательству, мало значимая. Во всяком случае, до тех пор, пока президент жив и здоров. И это нашло широкое отражение в массовой культуре.
Известный газетный обозреватель и еще более известный комик начала XX века Уилл Роджерс довольно точно подметил:
«_Лучшая работа в стране — у вице-президента. Она заключается в том, чтобы вставать каждое утро и спрашивать: “Как чувствует себя президент?”_».
В своих воспоминаниях 28-й вице-президент США Томас Маршал (1854-1925) писал:
«_Жили-были два брата. Один убежал из дома в открытое море, другой стал вице-президентом Америки. Никто об обоих с тех пор ничего не слышал_».
В популярном телесериале «Скандал» президент Фитцджеральд Грант кричит в гневе своему вице-президенту Сэлли Лэнгстон, задумавшей вести собственные политические игры:
«_От тебя не требуется даже собаку заводить! Ты должна хранить верность и не умирать!!! Хранить верность и не умирать!!!_».
Мне представляется, авторы «Скандала» довольно точно выделили основные две функции вице-президента — шествовать в фарватере его политики и быть готовым занять пост «лидера свободного мира» в случае отставки, недееспособности или, не дай Бог, смерти первого лица Соединенных Штатов.
С первого вице-президента США, Джона Адамса, и до наших дней из сорока семи вице-президентов четырнадцать становились президентами в результате преждевременного оставления поста их непосредственными начальниками. Пять из них — с начала XX века: Теодор Рузвельт, Гэрри Трумэн, Линдон Джонсон и Джеральд Форд. Еще двоим вице-президентам с 1900-го года удалось после успешного окончания службы избраться на высший государственный пост: Ричарду Никсону (с перерывом в восемь лет) и Джорджу Бушу-старшему (сразу после окончания вице-президентства).
Первый вице-президент США Джон Адамс
С одной стороны, должность второго человека в государстве — самый прямой путь к Овальному Кабинету. С другой — карьерный тупик, поскольку случаев превращения успешного вице-президента в успешного президента за последнее время не так уж много. Даже Ричард Никсон свои первые президентские выборы, будучи действующим вице-президентом (в администрации Дуайта Эйзенхауэра), в 1960 году проиграл. Он стал главой государства лишь в 1968-м. Получивший от него в наследство в 1974-м пост Джеральд Форд проиграл первые же перевыборы. Джордж Буш-старший, ставший преемником Рональда Рейгана, оставался хозяином Белого Дома лишь один срок.
Напрашивается вывод, что позиция вице-президента профессионально привлекательна либо для молодых амбициозных политиков, которые даже в случае неудачи смогут перезапустить свою политическую карьеру, либо для заслуженных «зубров», рассматривающих эту должность как завершающую их долгую политическую жизнь — помочь новичку, и на почетную пенсию… то есть на почетную должность в щедро финансируемый мозговой центр.
Уже упомянутый Пол Райан (в то время глава бюджетного комитета Палаты Представителей) в 2012 году неудачно баллотировался в вице-президенты в паре с Миттом Ромни. Впоследствии он успешно переизбрался в Конгресс и стал спикером палаты. А вот вице-президент Буша-старшего, Дэн Куэйл, пробыв в тени партриарха бушизма четыре года, после «потерялся, как в море», несмотря на неоднократные попытки избраться в Конгресс, губернатором и даже начать президентскую кампанию.
Джо Байден, пожалуй, поступил мудро, отказавшись от участия в выборах 2016 года. Он был одним из немногих в истории США активных вице-президентов, был заметен и, в отличие от десятков других американских вице, может похвастаться собственными проектами и свершениями.
Роль вице-президента как «хранящего верность и не умирающего» в XX веке де-факто начала пересматриваться. У сильных политиков, занимающих эту должность, появилась возможность вносить существенный вклад в политику США. При Франклине Делано Рузвельте второе лицо государства впервые стали приглашать на важные заседания кабинета. Генри Уоллес, второй вице-президент Франклина Делано, был долгое время доверенным лицом главы государства по вопросам сельского хозяйства и в международных делах.
Линдон Джонсон был первым американским вице-президентом, который получил офис в комплексе зданий Белого Дома (до этого аппарат второго лица государства располагался в Капитолии), в так называемом старом здании исполнительной власти (сегодня здание носит имя Эйзенхауэра). Кабинет в западном крыле основного здания Белого Дома вице-президент получил при Джимми Картере.
Вообще считается, что современное вице-президентство появилось именно при Картере. Второе лицо его администрации, Уолтер Мондейл, много ездил по стране и миру, продвигая политику администрации, являлся ближайшим конфидентом президента и его главным советником. Позже Мондейл вспоминал:
«_Мы понимали друг друга очень хорошо. Мы были уверены друг в друге. Наши взаимоотношения развивались под жестким прессингом, характерным для Белого Дома, но мы заняли наши посты с четким пониманием — возможно, впервые в истории этих постов, — что каждый из нас лучше справится со своей задачей, если мы сохраним нерушимое доверие друг к другу. И такое доверие присутствовало все четыре года_».
Уолтер Мондейл, вице-президент при Джимми Картере
Одним из самых активных и влиятельных вице-президентов был, безусловно, Дик Чейни. В администрации Буша-младшего он курировал большое количество вопросов. Очень многие проекты 2001-08 гг. были разработаны именно им, включая печально знаменитые пыточные техники и систему всеобщей слежки. Чейни часто называли серым кардиналом Белого Дома. Были у него и другие прозвища: Большое Время, Рыбак, Темная Сторона, Дарт Вейдер и Смертоносный Дик. Чейни в основном оставался в тени, публично высказывался немного, но очень скоро прессе и экспертам стала понятна его истинная роль.
В своей книге-бестселлере «Рыбак» 1 известный журналист-расследователь Бартон Гельман пишет:
«_Вице-президент [Чейни] изменил Америку гораздо больше, чем мог бы ее изменить кто-либо из террористов… 11 сентября нанесло по Соединенным Штатам серьезный удар, но решения, принятые в Белом Доме в ответ на атаку, оказали несравнимо большее влияние на американское общество_».
И далее: «_Чейни позволил Бушу вести “войну с мировым терроризмом” так, как тот ее видел. Обоими двигала вера в то, что правительство должно избавиться от старой “привычки” к самоограничению. С согласия Буша Чейни развязал руки спецслужбам для развертывания шпионажа внутри страны. Он предоставил им легальное прикрытие для проведения “усиленных допросов” захваченных врагов… Именно по инициативе Чейни Соединенные Штаты лишили подозреваемых в терроризме всех прав, которыми они долгое время пользовались по американскому и международному законодательству, построив новую юридическую доктрину, находящуюся в исключительном ведении Белого Дома_».
Гельман утверждает также, что Чейни активно отбивался от протестов Министерства юстиции, чинил ему всяческие препятствия (в том, что касалось новых антитеррористических методов) и «вплотную подвел администрацию Буша к краю пропасти».
Дик Чейни
Невероятная доселе концентрация теневой власти в руках Дика Чейни серьезно испугала Конгресс. А опубликованные расследования Бартона Гельмана, Джо Беккера, Джеймса Райзена и Сеймура Херша породили в обществе запрос на бóльшую сдержанность офиса вице-президента. На вице-президентских дебатах 2008 года между Джо Байденом и Сарой Пейлин оба кандидата согласились с тем, что вице-президент должен выполнять свои конституционные обязанности в качестве спикера Сената и быть главным советником президента. Перефразируя крылатую фразу из сериала — «хранить верность, не умирать и советовать».
Впрочем, Байден, став вице-президентом в администрации Обамы, был куда более активен, чем обещал. Он плотно занимался внешней политикой и в течение двух лет практически полностью блокировал попытки госсекретаря Хиллари Клинтон вести самостоятельную игру. Впрочем, до Чейни ему было далеко.
Перед следующим вице-президентом (если им станет республиканец), как мы уже знаем, будет поставлена новая задача: обеспечивать коммуникацию с Конгрессом, используя все свои формальные полномочия и неформальные связи. Причем в большей степени именно последние, поскольку законных рычагов воздействия на законодателей у второго лица государства немного. Так, по правилам Сената, вице-президент даже не имеет права выступать в прениях верхней палаты. А значит ключевым качествами вице-президента Трампа должны быть авторитет и знание «всех входов и выходов» в Капитолии.
Но до того, как эти качества можно будет применить, второму номеру команды Дональда необходимо будет помочь своему патрону выиграть выборы.
О важности быть серьезным
Столь пристальное внимание общественности, прессы и экспертократии к выбору Трампом своего кандидата в вице-президенты связано с еще одним очень важным, психологическим обстоятельством.
С того самого момента, как Трамп начал свою президентскую кампанию, многих наблюдателей не оставляло ощущение несерьезности происходящего. Эксцентричный (а не обычный, политкорректно-истеблишментный) стиль подачи несистемного кандидата большинство экспертов сбил с толку. Лишь небольшая часть представителей мейнстримной прессы, глядя на растущие толпы сторонников на предвыборных мероприятиях Дональда Трампа, довольно быстро поняла: Трамп — это чертовски серьезно.
Сейчас, после праймериз и значительной подвижки в рейтингах (за два месяца Клинтон в сравнении с Трампом потеряла 10 процентных пунктов), в серьезности предстоящей баталии между Хиллари и Дональдом уже никто не сомневается. В различных мозговых центрах спешно задним числом прорабатывается «клоунская кампания» миллиардера, чтобы составить представление о том, чего же ждать в предстоящие до ноября месяцы.
Привычка — вторая натура. Профессиональная привычка — пожалуй что и первая. Поэтому заокеанским экспертам (нашим — тем паче) хочется еще одного подтверждения того-что-все-серьезно, подтверждения привычного, ясного, которое есть с чем сравнить из предыдущего опыта освещения политических сезонов.
Именно поэтому так важно для наблюдателей, кто станет трамповским вице. Условно говоря, если это будет Сара Пэйлин или Джесс Вентура, то «все понятно, несерьезно», а если, скажем, Джон Кейсик или Скотт Уокер, то — «о, да, это всерьез».
Но разве «несерьезный» политик только что не «порвал в клочья» 16 (!!) соперников на праймериз? Разве его «необычность» только что не обманула нас всех? Разве его мессидж не услышали миллионы американцев, в том числе те, что раньше никогда не ходили на выборы? Разве не говорит ни о чем рекордная за последние 20 лет явка на республиканские праймериз? Разве не бесполезны «привычные ориентиры» в турбулентном политическом сезоне, который идет против всех «правил», казавшихся ранее незыблемыми?
Нет-нет, я не утверждаю, что партнером Дональда Трампа станет столь же эксцентричный и неполиткорректный политик. Но вовсе не потому, что «иначе несерьезно», а потому что кандидат уже сформулировал свои требования к своему вице. Помните: опытный политик с большим авторитетом в Конгрессе.
Трамп дал очень весомое доказательство своей серьезности уже тем, что думает наперед, заглядывает в январь 2017 года, когда новый президент США принесет присягу.
Кроме того, недавно Дональд Трамп огласил список из одиннадцати судей, чьи кандидатуры он готов рассматривать на замещение вакансии судьи Верховного Суда, образовавшейся после смерти судьи Антонина Скалиа. Работа по составлению списка велась штабом кандидата совместно с двумя известными мозговыми центрами — Heritage Foundation и Federalist Society. Такого рода список еще ни один кандидаты в президенты не представлял до избрания, не то что до общенациональной партийной конференции.
Впрочем, Трамп на этом останавливаться не собирается. Он пообещал представить на партсъезде (который и выдвинет его формально кандидатом в президенты) основных действующих лиц своего будущего кабинета. Из различных источников стало известно 2, что Дональд, в частности, рассматривает Криса Кристи в качестве нового генерального прокурора, Руди Джулиани как будущего руководителя Министерства внутренней безопасности, а доктора Бенджамина Карсона — как главу Министерства образования.
С одной стороны, эти предполагаемые назначения кажутся неожиданными, но с другой — очень логичными. Бен Карсон известен тем (помимо своей блистательной карьеры нейрохирурга), что осуществил несколько десятков успешных негосударственных образовательных проектов для малоимущих детей, которые по эффективности в несколько раз превосходили государственные. Давнишняя мечта республиканцев по ликвидации системы федеральных стандартов среднего образования Common Core и передаче управления образованием на уровень штатов, местного управления и даже семей проработана Карсоном детально. В конце концов Бену (если Трамп станет президентом) придется ликвидировать свое министерство, но, как он не раз заявлял, он будет этому только рад.
Бывший мэр Нью-Йорка Руди Джулиани известен не только тем, что, по мнению большинства экспертов, весьма эффективно организовал работу спасателей и служб правопорядка 11 сентября 2001 года, но и своей консалтинговой фирмой Giuliani Partners, которая разработала в 2001-02 гг. план по противодействию терроризму на территории США, альтернативный тому, что был кулуарно предложен Диком Чейни.
Губернатор Нью-Джерси Крис Кристи имеет весьма богатый юридический опыт. С 2002 по 2008 гг. он работал в качестве главного федерального прокурора по штату Нью-Джерси и вел бескомпромиссную борьбу с коррупцией, чем и заслужил признание граждан, позже избравших его губернатором. Когда на своем втором сроке президент Джордж Буш-младший начал чистку среди федеральных прокуроров и Кристи оказался в предварительном списке на увольнение, даже демократы встали на его защиту, несмотря на то, что именно Крис начал дело против влиятельного сенатора-демократа Боба Менендеса.
Что же касается финансово-экономических ведомств, то здесь Дональду явно есть, кого подтянуть из своих друзей и партнеров по бизнесу.
Так что работа по созданию «администрации Трампа» идет полным ходом. Более того, в отличие от своей соперницы, Хиллари Клинтон, Дональд уже представил не только свою внешнеполитическую программу, но и частично свою внешнеполитическую команду во главе с влиятельным консервативным сенатором Джеффом Сешнсом.
Дональд Трамп и Джефф Сешнс
Столь серьезно (уже без всяких кавычек) подготовленными к партийной конференции и к общенациональным выборам до Дональда Трампа подходили немногие. Причем видно, что кандидат лично участвует в работе, хотя совершенно не брезгует внешними советами, не боится делегировать полномочия тем соратникам, которым доверяет (по классике — это основа управленческого мастерства), и действует с явным опережением графика своего главного конкурента.
Таким образом, Трамп уже ставит задачи перед членами возможной будущей администрации Белого Дома (включая еще пока неназванного кандидата в вице-президенты). По всей видимости, это означает, что Дональд не будет «балансировать бюллетень». Разве что первым номером пойдет относительный новичок, а вторым — опытный «зубр», примкнувший к новой Республиканской партии, знамя которой поднял «несерьезный» Дональд Трамп.
Так все-таки кто?
В недавнем эфире Fox News ведущий Билл О’Райли убеждал бывшего спикера Палаты Представителей Ньюта Гингрича (в Конгрессе с 1979 г., в должности спикера — с 1995 по 1999 гг., был кандидатом в президенты в 2012 году), что именно его Трамп выберет своим партнером по гонке. «Я уверен», — несколько раз повторил О’Райли. Гингрич не стал кокетничать и заявил в прямом эфире, что «готов помогать Дональду на волонтерской основе» и далее, но приглашение на вице-президентскую номинацию будет для него честью, и его экс-спикер «рассмотрит со всей серьезностью».
Что ж, Гингрич полностью удовлетворяет «критерию Трампа». Это опытный парламентский боец, обладающий несомненным консервативным реноме и большим авторитетом в Конгрессе. Он уже с января 2016 года поддерживает Трампа, однако, сохраняя партийную дисциплину, официально объявил о своей поддержку лишь в апреле. Любопытно, что Джон Кейсик, о котором мы говорили выше, — протеже Гингрича. Именно под руководством последнего Джон составил первый в истории США с 1964 года бездефицитный бюджет, а Ньют обеспечил его принятие, несмотря на противодействие Билла Клинтона.
Ньют Гингрич
В команде Трампа есть еще один человек, полностью соответствующий задачам, которые Дональд ставит пред своим партнером по гонке. Это уже упомянутый выше сенатор Джефф Сешнс, поддержавший Трампа буквально через несколько часов после того, как это сделал Крис Кристи. Сешнс возглавляет внешнеполитическую команду Трампа, привел в его штаб немало полезных специалистов, так что он тоже может стать кандидатом в вице-президенты от Республиканской партии. Однако его навыки, скорее всего, больше пригодятся на должности госсекретаря США. Это будет эдакий Джон Керри, только трампистский.
Но Трамп есть Трамп. Мы можем в ближайшие несколько недель услышать о совершенно неожиданных кандидатурах на пост вице-президента (мало ли нас Трамп удивлял!). Например, республиканский номинант может выбрать себе в партнеры женщину. Нет, не Сару Пэйлин, но, скажем, сенатора от Айовы (кстати, колеблющегося штата) Джони Эрнст, звезду промежуточных выборов 2014 года, причем не менее яркую, чем губернатор Висконсина Скотт Уокер или сенатор от Монтаны Корри Гарднер.
Дело даже не в «непредсказуемости» Дональда Трампа. Дело в том, что мы имеем дело с политическим раскладом, которого очень давно не было в Соединенных Штатах. И привычные методы анализа электоральной ситуации в США (еще со времен Джимми Картера как минимум) сегодня не работают.
Надо также понять и трудности самого Трампа. Он почувствовал, что пришло время перемен, вступил в борьбу и пока что преуспел в ней. Однако как в условиях тотального разрушения истеблишмента обеих партий и неостанавливающегося бунта избирателей одновременно сохранить Республику и обеспечить назревшие перемены?
Что ж, выбор кандидата в вице-президенты будет важной частью ответа на этот вопрос.
Notes:
- Barton Gellman, Angler: The Chaney Vice Presidency, Penguin Press HC, 2008. ↩
- Информация действительно носит синтетический характер, поэтому невозможно указать единый источник данных. Однако к тем же выводам пришел автор и ведущий программ телеканала Fox News Билл О’Райли, о чем рассказал в ходе интервью с экс-спикером Палаты Представителей Ньютом Гингричем, и его собеседник молча согласился. Об этом интервью у нас еще пойдет речь. ↩
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Notes:
- Barton Gellman, Angler: The Chaney Vice Presidency, Penguin Press HC, 2008. ↩
- Информация действительно носит синтетический характер, поэтому невозможно указать единый источник данных. Однако к тем же выводам пришел автор и ведущий программ телеканала Fox News Билл О’Райли, о чем рассказал в ходе интервью с экс-спикером Палаты Представителей Ньютом Гингричем, и его собеседник молча согласился. Об этом интервью у нас еще пойдет речь. ↩
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Notes:
- Barton Gellman, Angler: The Chaney Vice Presidency, Penguin Press HC, 2008. ↩
- Информация действительно носит синтетический характер, поэтому невозможно указать единый источник данных. Однако к тем же выводам пришел автор и ведущий программ телеканала Fox News Билл О’Райли, о чем рассказал в ходе интервью с экс-спикером Палаты Представителей Ньютом Гингричем, и его собеседник молча согласился. Об этом интервью у нас еще пойдет речь. ↩
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Kirill Benediktov
Russia–France: Possible Conservative Alliance? (№ 3, 2015)
The article studies the possible Russian-French alliance retrospectively and analyses its fundamental features. The main assumption is that France is one of the two Western European countries that could build a strategic alliance with Russia, with Germany being the other one. Starting from it, the author shows that only shared values could provide a solid foundation for an effective alliance. Otherwise the alliance between Russia and the leading European country would be at best tactical, rather than strategic. While there are few, if any, shared values with Germany following the forced transformation of the German cultural code in the wake of the WWII, relations with France have evolved differently. With conservative values shared by most Russians and Frenchmen, the ideological proximity brings the two countries closer. Nowadays some French politicians regard Russia as a guardian and a stronghold of traditional European values that have fallen prey to globalization and are ousted by the aggressive Anglo-Saxon civilization and its model. The sympathizers include intellectuals that form the political agenda and shape public opinion. Others are political activists, mobilizing the electorate. Marine Le Pen, the president of the French National Front, is the most favorably disposed towards Russia among European politicians. The examples of the National Front and its leader reveal the attitude of French conservatives towards Russia. As seen from France, Russia is returning to its roots, so French conservatives regard the resurgence of the Russian Orthodox Church, the formal LGBT propaganda ban and other events as the signs of a titanic battle between the living European Christian tradition endorsed by both France and Russia and the post-Christian and anti-Christian world based on the Anglo-Saxon globalization concept. They also interpret them as signals for possible ideological rapprochement.
Keywords: France, Russia, Alliance, Values, Conservatism, National Front, Marine Le Pen.
Paul Grenier
Russian Conservatism and its Reception the West through the Prism of Ideological Liberalism (№ 3, 2015)
The author focuses attention, first, on the poor reception in the West of Russia’s current attempt to define its national idea by reference to its own pre-communist philosophical tradition. He demonstrates that this negative reception, however, is conditioned by what may, optimistically, be temporary political-ideological exigencies, at a period when very little that is associated with the Russian leadership is able to get a fair or warm reception in mainstream U.S. publications. The author points out that the Russian religious philosophical tradition was widely considered admirable and constructive in the West prior to 2014. At present, however, the typical approach in the U.S. and European press is to contrast Russian realpolitik policies with abstract Western ideals rather than Western realpolitik policies. Meanwhile, the very existence of legitimate Russian ideals is dismissed. The author then turns his attention to Russia’s present efforts to define its own ideals in a conservative vein. He suggests that this effort demands a careful definition of categories and to this end distinguishes between ideological and non-ideological brands of both conservatism and liberalism. He urges Russia’s intellectual leadership to embrace the whole of its tradition (i.e. the best of its tradition) rather than only a part. He notes a tendency by Russian conservatism to privilege what in Plato’s Republic were the virtues of the Guardians (as opposed to the Traders). But the Russian heritage incorporates, according to the author, both liberal and conservative elements, even as it is ultimately grounded in а realm that lies beyond liberalism and conservatism.
Keywords: International Relations, Realism, Barack Obama, Demagogy, Liberalism, Conservatism, Ideology, Russian national idea, N. Berdyaev, G. Fedotov, V. Solovyov, I. Ilyin, Pierre Manent, Jane Jacobs, Plato’s Republic.
Mikhail Ilyin
A Diaologue about Islands and Straits, Intermarums and Intermunds (№ 1, 2015)
Mikhail Ilyin reviews main subjects of scholarly debate between himself and Vadim Tzimburski since early 90s when they both were promoting geopolitical and chronopolitical studies in new Russia. The debate focused on five major issues: character of geopolitics, links between geopolitics and chronopolitics, geopolitics of Russia (Eurasia), limitrophe areas around Russia and particularly Balto-Pontida. Very clear and coherent differences between both analysts would not undermine their essential agreement on basis issues and would not prevent their co-authorship. Furthermore, disagreements were complementary. Even now they continue to inspire further investigations.
Keywords: geopolitics, chronopolitics, Russia-Eurasia, Island of Russia, Heartland, limitrophe areas, Balto-Pontida, Balto-Pontic system.
Leonid Ionin
Projects of Total Democracy: Power of Referendums, E-Democracy, “One Man – One Vote” (№ 3, 2015)
This work regards total democracy as a commitment to solving problems and dealing with contradictions in modern representative democracies through maximizing equality and granting the public with direct access to the mechanisms of social control. The paper considers the proposals to create a “community” run by referendums, to establish online democracy, and to improve the egalitarian principle of “one man – one vote”. It also analyses the sociological and epistemological basis of these models. It draws a conclusion that the conservative approach is more promising, that is the use of the mechanisms elaborated at the earlier, relatively distant stages of political development, the use of mechanisms which take into account diverse particular features of the political process.
Keywords: Public Opinion, Referendum, Scientific Knowledge, Common Knowledge, Qualifications, Classes, Universalism, Particularism.
Andrey Ivanov
The Slogan “Russia for Russians” in Conservative Thought in the Second Half of the XIX Century (№ 4, 2015)
The article studies the origin of the slogan “Russia for Russians” and its conservative interpretations in the second half of the XIX century. The study is based on numerous works, most of which have never been previously used. The author analyzes the attitude to the slogan “Russia for Russians” of well-known conservatives, such as Emperor Alexander III, V. Skaryatin, I. Aksakov, M. Katkov, M. Skobelev, S. Syromyatnikov, V. Rozanov, A. Suvorin and others.
Keywords: “Russia for Russians”, Russian Conservatism, Russian Nationalism, Pan-Slavism, Emperor Alexander III.
Alexei Kharin
The First Book about the Great Geopolitician (№ 1, 2015)
The article is devoted to the intellectual biography V.L. Tsymbursky, written by a political scientist B.V. Mezhuev. In the monograph, Mezhuev succeeded to show basic landmarks of work and the main ideas of the thinker, as well as to determine the value of Tsymbursky’s works. Separate positions cause a discussion, but on the whole the book turned out well.
Keywords: B.V. Mezhuev, V.L. Tsymbursky, “the Island of Russia”, Great Limitrophe, geopolitics, chronopolitics, civilization.
Stanislav Khatuntsev
Vadim Tsymbursky, a Russian Geopolitician (№ 1, 2015)
The article covers geopolitical conceptualization of a prominent Russian philologist, cultural philosopher, thinker, and political writer V.L. Tsymbursky, in particular, his “Island Russia” model, the concepts of “Euronapping” and of the Great Limitroph; as well as their criticism, the author’s opinion of some problems brought up by Tsymbursky. The category of limitrophic spaces is supplemented with the category of limbic territories.
Keywords: V.L. Tsymbursky, “Island Russia”, geopolitics, civilization approach, civilization geopolitics, internal geopolitics of Russia, “Euronapping”, Great Limitrophe, limb, transfer of the capital city.
Stanislav Khatuntsev
“Preserving the Future”: Konstantin Leontiev’s Seven Geopolitical Pillars (№ 4, 2015)
This article analyses the issues related to the “seven pillars” approach, K. Leontiev’s set of ideas about the new «Eastern Slavic culture», and his geopolitical ideas.
Keywords: Heptastylism (Seven Pillars), Anatolism, K. Leontiev, Geopolitics, “Eastern Question”, Constantinople, “Eastern Union”, Russian History, Russian Post-Reform Political Thinking, Historiosophy.
Aleksey Kozhevnikov
Russia’s Present and Future in A. Solzhenitsyn’s and I. Shafarevich’s Works: “From Under the Rubble” Collection (1974) (№ 4, 2015)
The article analyzes A. Solzhenitsyn’s and I. Shafarevich’s political essays. Solzhenitsyn’s and Shafarevich’s articles, published in the “From Under the Rubble” collection, dwelt on the historical problems and development of the Russian nation.
Keywords: A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Shafarevich, “From Under the Rubble” Collection, Russian National Values, Historical Problems of the Russian Nation, Development of the Russian Nation.
Yegor Kholmogorov
Searching for Lost Tsargrad: Tsymbursky and Danilevsky (№ 1, 2015)
The article analyzes how Nikolay Danilevsky’s geopolitical ideas influenced Vadim Tsymbursky, and reveals the similarities and differences in the approaches of both thinkers to Russia’s internal and external geopolitics. Their ideas critically underline vulnerable points of each other’s concepts. Разбираются Danilevsky’s nationalism, pan-Slavism and the programme of the struggle for Constantinople are observed, as well as Tsymbursky’s ideas of «Island Russia», limitrophe zone, internal colonization, and his attention to the region of Novorossia. The author comes to a conclusion that the key problems stated by Danilevsky and Tsymbursky don’t have a solely geopolitical solution and demand the transition to chronopolitics, the consideration of civilizations not only as geographical, but also as historical and cultural integrals.
Keywords: Danilevsky; Tsymbursky; geopolitics; Constantinople; pan-Slavism; nationalism; “Island Russia”; civilization; limitrophe; Siberia; internal colonization; Novorossia; Konstantin Leontiev; chronopolitics; Byzantium.
Olga Malinova
The Conservatives and Collective Memory: Cultivating a Repertoire of Politically Usable Past (№ 3, 2014)
The paper analyses a development of “infrastructure” of a usable past in post-Soviet Russia. It argues that the latter is both a resource and a matter of symbolic investments for the ruling elite. It concludes that after more than 20 years after the collapse of the USSR the repertoire of the usable past remains rather scarce, and “memory policy” is still far from being consistent. The paper supposes that more systematic development of the repertoire of the usable past could be a matter of efforts of the conservatives as well as the other political forces who must be interested in development of this resource that might be considered as fundamental common good.
Keywords: political uses of the past, collective memory, symbolic politics, B. Yeltsin, V. Putin.
Boris Makarenko
Never the Twain Shall Meet? Conservatism in Russia and in the West (№ 3, 2015)
The article compares and contrasts the main values and political principles of contemporary Western and Russian conservatism. The key assumption is that in the West conservatism relies on the uninterrupted tradition of political participation, while Russian conservatism is reinventing its values and political practices, relying on the philosophical and political heritage of the past ages. In the West, conservatism exists in democracies and market economies, while in Russia, conservatism develops in a society in transition, undergoing rapid and uneven modernization. The “strong state” for the West lies in democratic sovereignty, a competitive and efficient economy, and an optimized “welfare state”. Russian conservatism lacks a comprehensive economic doctrine; the value of sovereignty is believed to lie in the defense of internal and external security, and the “welfare state” is largely paternalistic. In the West, conservatism fosters moral and cultural values of the post-industrial age; in Russia these values retain their traditional character, but modernization necessitates their adaptation to the changing society. While, amid the emergence of new conservative ideas, Western conservatism faces the major challenge of developing a “new synthesis”; Russian conservatism needs to respond to the challenge of developing a comprehensive system of values in conformity with the contemporary stage of Russia’s political development.
Keywords: Conservatism, Values, Comparative Politics, Political Development, Political Parties.
Mikhail Maslin
Classic Eurasianism and Its Modern Transformations (№ 4, 2015)
The article reveals the essence of classical Eurasianism in the 1920-1930s. The author makes a general critical evaluation of A. Dugin’s neoeurasianism. Neoeurasianism distorts classical Eurasianism, presenting the image full of xenophobia, racism and aggression. Meanwhile, the author demonstrates the intellectual potential of undistorted classical Eurasianism taking the example of A. Panarin’s heritage.
Keywords: Eurasianism, Neourasianism, Orientalism, Geopolitics, Russian Emigration, Atlantism, Russophobia, Mysticism, Conspirology.
Oleg Matveychev
“The Philosophy of Inequality” by N. Berdyaev – the Manifesto of Liberal Conservatism (№ 3, 2015)
The report describes the concept of the ideological mix. Analyzing “The Philosophy of Inequality”, the author illustrates that N. Berdyaev voices purely liberal-conservative ideas in it. This fact accounts for valid interpretation and popularity of the book in Western Europe in the 1920s and 1930s.
Keywords: “The Philosophy of Inequality” by N. Berdyaev, Ideological Mixes, Liberal Conservatism.
Boris Mezhuyev
Mapping of Russian Europeanism (№ 1, 2015)
This article deals with the evolution of geopolitical views of Vadim Tsymburski in the context of his conceptualization of the problem of “buffer”, or “limitroрhe” territories between Russia and Europe which were called by the author of “The Island of Russia” as “straitterritories”. It is known that Vadim Tsymburski thought that the loss of control by Russia over these territories has strengthened the security of our country that was damaged throughout the history by Russia’s own urge to eliminate these «buffer» territories for the geopolitical confluence of Russia and Europe. The question arises, how could Vadim Tsymbursky treat the elimination of “strait territories” by Europe in terms of his system, could it be seen by him as a threat to Russian security? The article proves that in the end of his life just this point motivated the scholar to reconsider his geopolitical conception but this reconsideration was prevented by his death.
Keywords: geopolitics, strait-territories, buffer territories, Russian Europeanism.
Andrei Nikiforov
The Crimean Contribution to the Revolutionary Restoration of Geopolitical Justice and the New Mission of Russia (№ 3, 2015)
The “Crimean Spring” was a manifestation of the expanding regionalization, that the world has been witnessing in recent years. An integral region becomes the actor of world politics. The region relies on the collective political will of the regional community rather than on separate nation-states with their borders established by treaties of by force. The Crimean issue has provoked sharp divisions in European society, virtually splitting it in two parts: a group of regionalists, advocates of traditional values and a group of neo-liberals and all those who scrounge off globalization. The “Crimean Spring” marked the beginning of the revolutionary restoration of geopolitical justice.
Keywords: “Crimean Spring”, Regionalism, Traditional Values.
Tatyana Plyashchenko
Conservative Liberalism in Russia the Post-reform Period: The History of a Failure (№ 4, 2015)
The article dwells on the peculiarities of Russian conservative liberalism in the second half of the 19th century and its proponents, including A. Gradovsky, K. Kavelin, and B. Chicherin. The article gives special prominence to the policies of the Russian conservative liberals at both theoretical and operative level.
Keywords: Conservative Liberalism, Liberal Nationalism, Nation-State.
Leonid Polyakov
The Eternal and Momentary in Russian Conservatism (№ 4, 2015)
The article pinpoints the plurality of meanings of the terms “conservatism” and “conservatives” which were in use in the Russian philosophical and political thought in second half of the XIX – early XX centuries, and gives a critical evaluation. The study starts with Nikolai Berdyaev’s definition of “conservatism” which poses the key dilemma: either to mercilessly criticize the momentary from the point of view of “eternity”, or to ascribe to the existing momentary a rank of “Eternal”. Through this dilemma it is possible to demonstrate how authentic conservative principles and meanings could have been presented in different and alternative ideological paradigms. The everlasting character of this dilemma in the pre-revolutionary Russian conservative thought for a long time deprived of a possibility for political representation, brought about a fatal gap between conservatism “from above” and radical-left mood “from below”. The ultimate outcome was the collapse of the Empire. The contemporary situation in Russia allows to escape such a scenario through assuming conservative principles as “spiritual bonds” tying authorities and the people.
Keywords: Conservatism, Liberalism, Progressivism, Reactionary, Revolution.
Alexei Rutkevich
Peculiarities of Russian Conservatism. Map and Territory (№ 4, 2015)
Russian conservatism makes part of European political thought, as well as Russian party practices in Russia in the XIX century. The article consistently analyzes the stages of development of conservative ideology in Western Europe and in Russia.
Keywords: Ideology, Baroque, Romanticism, Conservatism, Reaction, Liberal Conservatism, Political Philosophy, Map, Territory.
Aleksey Shchavelev
The Islander or Thinking about “Conjunctures of Land and Time…” (№ 1, 2015)
The paper is a survey commentary on the last book by V.L. Tsymburskiy “Conjunctures of Land and Time”.
Keywords: V.L. Tsymburskiy, review, philosophy of history, historiography.
Alexander Shchipkov
Russian Identity and Russian Tradition at the End of the Globalization Era (№ 3, 2015)
The report dwells on a new demand for tradition and identity, which emerges as globalization exhausts itself. The keynote of Russian identity is claimed to be religious and ethical, rather than ethnic. Irredentism – the reunification of the largest divided nation (Russian) – should be viewed as a key element of Russian identity. It should be distinguished from russification of other ethnic groups by force. To cite Weber’s famous formula, the core of Russian identity is formed by “Orthodox ethics and solidarity spirit, that is equity, partnership and mutual assistance. This is a particular Russian ethos. In practice, justice plays the role of the categorical imperative in the Russian tradition. The author believes that meaningful socio-cultural ideas can be centred round Christian ethics. This factor, along with the Russian language, allows to make the “Russian World” concept more precise from the semantic point of view, as this notion still needs to be fully defined.
Keywords: Identity, Orthodox Ethics, Globalization Limits, Russian World, Solidarity, Justice, Tradition, Ethos
Aleksandr Shiriniants
Conservatism and the Party System in Modern Russia (№ 3, 2014)
The programs of Russian modern political parties, proclaiming conservative aims are analysed in the article through the patterns of phenomenology and axiology of Russian conservatism. The problem of the role of conservatism in contemporary ideological quest in Russia is discussed; original definitions of conservatism and its basis are proposed; links between conservatism and tradition and theoretical reflection are described; specific features of Russian political conservatism and the sources of its heterogeneity are revealed; accent is put on the role played by Russian intelligentsia in formation of conservative ideology; “oppositional” and “progressive” character of conservatism is marked down; comparison of conservative declarations with conservative values is developed.
Keywords: conservative ideology, conservative values, political parties, party-building in modern Russia.
Konstantin Simonov
Conservatism Facing Uncertainty (№ 3, 2015)
European values and the centuries-old picture of the world are exposed to erosion and are undergoing transformation. This is manifested, in particular, in neglecting the obvious benefits of trade and economic relations with Russia, in undermining free competition through affirmative activities, which involve, among other things, the policy of gender and juvenile equality. Such changes make the prediction of the future impossible.
Keywords: Values, Europe, Future Forecasts.
Alexander Tsipko
Soviet Intellectual Community Converting to Russian Conservatism (On Spontaneous Anti-Communism Untying USSR Ideological Bonds) (№ 4, 2015)
The article identifies the interdependence of conservatism, including its Russian version, and anti-communism. It focuses on the ideology of the “Russian Party”, a departure in Soviet political thinking in the 1960s-1970s. The article contains its comparative analysis with the ideology and policies of “Polish Party”, the Polish intellectual community of the 1970s-1980s leading the “Solidarity” movement. It also highlights the differences between the “Russian party” and the Sixtiers.
Keywords: Soviet Political Thinking, “Russian Party”, Conservatism, Anti-Communism, The Sixtiers, “Polish Party”.
Andrei P. Tsygankov
«Island» Geopolitics of Vadim Tsymbursky (№ 1, 2015)
The article analyzes the role of V. Tsymbursky in rethinking geopolitics. In particular, his theory of Russia as a geopolitical “island” is discussed. Other discussed issues include the geopolitics of values, intellectual influences, and Tsymbursky’s position in Russian foreign policy debates. The article formulates two lessons of the thinker for Russia – the need in mastering Russian cultural space and a long period of flexible foreign policy under the conditions of uni-multipolar world.
Keywords: geopolitical “island”, the geopolitics of values, the uni-multipolar world.
Andrei Tsygankov
«Island» Geopolitics of Vadim Tsymbursky (№ 1, 2015)
The article analyzes the role of V. Tsymbursky in rethinking geopolitics. In particular, his theory of Russia as a geopolitical “island” is discussed. Other discussed issues include the geopolitics of values, intellectual influences, and Tsymbursky’s position in Russian foreign policy debates. The article formulates two lessons of the thinker for Russia – the need in mastering Russian cultural space and a long period of flexible foreign policy under the conditions of uni-multipolar world.
Keywords: geopolitical “island”, the geopolitics of values, the uni-multipolar world.
Vadim Tsymbursky (1957 – 2009)
Morphology of Russian Geopolitcs. An excerpt from the book. Chapter Five. First Eurasian Epoch of Russia: from Sebastopol to Port-Arthur (№ 1, 2015)
Vadim Tsymbursky made his PhD thesis «The Morphology of Russian Geopolitics and the Dynamic of International Systems of XVIII–XX centuries» in about 1997-2003. He could not complete his work but he left some fragments of it in manuscript. In the fifth chapter of thesis entitled «The first Eurasian interlude: from Sebastopol to Port-Arthur» the scholar made the analysis of the geopolitical thought of this period of time which was periodically repeated in the Russian history. This period is characterized by temporary backwash after the Russian onslaught on Europe and concentration on the eastern borders of Empire. The chapter describes in detail geopolitical views of prominent authors such as Fyodor Dostoevsky, Nikolai Danilevsky, Alexander Hertzen, Rostislav Fadeev etc.
Keywords: Eurasian interlude, Baltic-Black Sea region, European bipolarity, Balkan question.
Vasiliy Vanchugov
From «Island» to «Fortress»: Methaphor as an Instrument of Political Analysis and Practical Politics (№ 1, 2015)
This article is devoted to the representation of ideas, in particular, the use in the field of geopolitics, metaphors, analogies, comparisons, as well as cases of mythologizing ideologies. For this purpose, the author has made a comparison of the various narratives, methods and techniques of modern production of knowledge in the humanities in general, and in politics in particular. Taking the complex of ideas from the book “The Island of Russia”, the author of the article is going to highlight one of his key works in the context of contemporary issues, because, in his opinion, the most topical issue is the “dismantling” of the empire, discussion of which gives us the opportunity to be engaged in designing future.
Keywords: politics, geopolitics, history, philosophy of history, metaphor, formula, hermeneutics, myth, empire, power, governance.
Yan Vaslavsky
Russia and Europe: A New Crossroads (№ 3, 2015)
The article analyses the changing concept of united Europe from the times of Napoleon Bonaparte. The author ponders on two visions of European politics and development promoted by advocates of Napoleon Bonaparte and philosophers who eschewed the Napoleonic imperial model, respectively. Moreover, the article seeks to study the current relations between Europe and Russia given the changing concept of united Europe.
Keywords: France, Napoleon Bonaparte, Pan-European idea, Napoleonic Wars, Russia and Europe, Russian-European Relations.
Anton Zakutin
Modern Conservatism in the UK and in Russia: Possible Convergence Points (№ 3, 2015)
The article compares and contrasts basic conservative notions of modern political discourse in the UK and in Russia. Despite profound differences between the two political cultures, the two conservative brands exhibit a number of possible convergence points. The need to defend genuine traditional values against a background of expanding globalization, can unite advocates of various and diverse conservative trends. This article gives an overview of the most common ideas in parties’ platforms, among think tanks, among conservative thinkers of the states in question.
Keywords: Conservatism, Comparative Politics, Euroscepticism, Toryism.
Lyubov Bibikova
Postmodernism and the Value Crisis of the European Historical Science (№ 3, 2015)
The article analyzes causes and consequences of the shift towards postmodernism in Europe’s historiography against a background of social and political trends in Europe in the late 20th-early 21stcentury. The text focuses on the crisis of values in European studies of history, and, above all, the philosophy of history, which has been driven by postmodernism to eschew classical positivist notions of objectivity and validity as the fundamental values of historical knowledge. Consequently, leading European historical methodologists have arrived at the conclusion that historical science is predominantly aimed at reaching and maintaining public consensus on various political trends. The state of affairs in the 20th century impelled European historians to search for the roots of the European unity.
Keywords: Postmodernism, Philosophy of History, Historical Science of Europe, Historiography, Memory, Microhistory, Linguistic Shift.
Anatoly Chernyaev
Nikolai Berdyaev’s “Theocratic Socialism” (№ 3, 2014)
Basing on the analysis of Nikolai Berdyaev’s works of 1903–1917, the article reconstructs his project of “theocratic socialism”. It demonstrates the similarity between the concept of Berdyaev and the ideology of European religious Reformation, and also discusses the question of the relevance and applicability of Western experience of the Reformation in Russian socio-historical conditions.
Keywords: Reformation, Orthodoxy, theocracy, socialism, revolution, freedom, personality, new religious consciousness, Berdyaev, Merezhkovsky, Kartashov.
Paul Grenier
Russian Conservatism and its Reception the West through the Prism of Ideological Liberalism (№ 3, 2015)
The author focuses attention, first, on the poor reception in the West of Russia’s current attempt to define its national idea by reference to its own pre-communist philosophical tradition. He demonstrates that this negative reception, however, is conditioned by what may, optimistically, be temporary political-ideological exigencies, at a period when very little that is associated with the Russian leadership is able to get a fair or warm reception in mainstream U.S. publications. The author points out that the Russian religious philosophical tradition was widely considered admirable and constructive in the West prior to 2014. At present, however, the typical approach in the U.S. and European press is to contrast Russian realpolitik policies with abstract Western ideals rather than Western realpolitik policies. Meanwhile, the very existence of legitimate Russian ideals is dismissed. The author then turns his attention to Russia’s present efforts to define its own ideals in a conservative vein. He suggests that this effort demands a careful definition of categories and to this end distinguishes between ideological and non-ideological brands of both conservatism and liberalism. He urges Russia’s intellectual leadership to embrace the whole of its tradition (i.e. the best of its tradition) rather than only a part. He notes a tendency by Russian conservatism to privilege what in Plato’s Republic were the virtues of the Guardians (as opposed to the Traders). But the Russian heritage incorporates, according to the author, both liberal and conservative elements, even as it is ultimately grounded in а realm that lies beyond liberalism and conservatism.
Keywords: International Relations, Realism, Barack Obama, Demagogy, Liberalism, Conservatism, Ideology, Russian national idea, N. Berdyaev, G. Fedotov, V. Solovyov, I. Ilyin, Pierre Manent, Jane Jacobs, Plato’s Republic.
Leonid Ionin
Projects of Total Democracy: Power of Referendums, E-Democracy, “One Man – One Vote” (№ 3, 2015)
This work regards total democracy as a commitment to solving problems and dealing with contradictions in modern representative democracies through maximizing equality and granting the public with direct access to the mechanisms of social control. The paper considers the proposals to create a “community” run by referendums, to establish online democracy, and to improve the egalitarian principle of “one man – one vote”. It also analyses the sociological and epistemological basis of these models. It draws a conclusion that the conservative approach is more promising, that is the use of the mechanisms elaborated at the earlier, relatively distant stages of political development, the use of mechanisms which take into account diverse particular features of the political process.
Keywords: Public Opinion, Referendum, Scientific Knowledge, Common Knowledge, Qualifications, Classes, Universalism, Particularism.
Stanislav Khatuntsev
“Preserving the Future”: Konstantin Leontiev’s Seven Geopolitical Pillars (№ 4, 2015)
This article analyses the issues related to the “seven pillars” approach, K. Leontiev’s set of ideas about the new «Eastern Slavic culture», and his geopolitical ideas.
Keywords: Heptastylism (Seven Pillars), Anatolism, K. Leontiev, Geopolitics, “Eastern Question”, Constantinople, “Eastern Union”, Russian History, Russian Post-Reform Political Thinking, Historiosophy.
Alexey Kozyrev
“At the Walls of Chersonese”: Russian Philosophy and Crimea (№ 3, 2014)
The article includes three sketches dedicated to the eminent personalities of the Russian philosophical culture, whose lives were strongly connected with the Crimea. Writer, philosopher and publicist Konstantin Leontyev (1831–1891) took part in the Crimean military campaign of 1853–1856 as a medical officer in Kerch. He was the one who suggested creating «the uchebnitsa of natural sciences» in Nikitsky botanical garden. Nikolai Berdyaev (1874–1948) had deep existential experiences while visiting the house Evgenia Gertsyk in Sudak in 1909 and 1910. In 1914, Berdyaev’s ideological antagonist Ivan Ilyin (1883–1954), who was returning home from Germany after the beginning of World War I, happened to visit the same house. The town of Oleiz near Yalta is related to Sergei Bulgakov (1871–1944), who often stayed in the father-in-law manor. In 1909 Bulgakov lost his little son Ivan there. This event turned out to be the defining one in the thinker’s life. In 1918, Sergei Bulgakov comes back to the Crimea as a priest. There he wrote «The philosophy of name» and «The tragedy of philosophy». In the Crimea he thought about the correctness of a historiosophical choice of Russia, which resulted in the dialogues called “At the walls of Chersonese”. He was exiled from Sevastopol under the resolution of GPU in 1922, and never returned to homeland.
Keywords: life esthetic, historiosophy, landscape, intimacy, freedom, spirit, spiritual trials, imyaslavye (glorification of name), Catholicism, Bolshevism.
Alexey Kozyrev
The Issue of Human Dignity in the Past and Present of Russian Thought (№ 3, 2015)
The concept of human dignity (dignitas) dates back to Roman law. Originally denoting “worthiness”, the word “dignity” now stands for a fundamental category of human rights, with the coins’ value evolving into inherent dignity, ensured by equal rights. To cite Protagoras, if man is the measure of all things, dignity can be described as the measure of humanity. The human rights system promotes and protects human dignity through the protection of one’s right to a decent life. Vladimir Solovyev was the first Russian thinker to speak about this right. In his reply to French journalist Jules Huret’s questionnaire on social issues in Europe (1892), he wrote: “There is an intrinsic value in every human being, and one possesses an inalienable right to an existance, which is commensurate with one’s human dignity”. The concept of dignity is one of the pillars of “The Basis of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church” (2000), with references to it made in Chapter X “Personal, family and public morality”. This document links human dignity to the human individual being in the image of God, through this establishing the foundation of true theonomous ethics, natural law. The value of human dignity has also been mentioned in the “Russian Orthodox Church’s Basic Teaching on Human Dignity, Freedom and Human Rights” (2008), which specifically examines the concept of human rights.
Keywords: Human Dignity, Morals, Human Rights, Inherent Nature of Dignity, Personality
Yegor Kholmogorov
Searching for Lost Tsargrad: Tsymbursky and Danilevsky (№ 1, 2015)
The article analyzes how Nikolay Danilevsky’s geopolitical ideas influenced Vadim Tsymbursky, and reveals the similarities and differences in the approaches of both thinkers to Russia’s internal and external geopolitics. Their ideas critically underline vulnerable points of each other’s concepts. Разбираются Danilevsky’s nationalism, pan-Slavism and the programme of the struggle for Constantinople are observed, as well as Tsymbursky’s ideas of «Island Russia», limitrophe zone, internal colonization, and his attention to the region of Novorossia. The author comes to a conclusion that the key problems stated by Danilevsky and Tsymbursky don’t have a solely geopolitical solution and demand the transition to chronopolitics, the consideration of civilizations not only as geographical, but also as historical and cultural integrals.
Keywords: Danilevsky; Tsymbursky; geopolitics; Constantinople; pan-Slavism; nationalism; “Island Russia”; civilization; limitrophe; Siberia; internal colonization; Novorossia; Konstantin Leontiev; chronopolitics; Byzantium.
Mikhail Maslin
Konstantin Leontiev and Eurasianism. Lessons of Russian Conservatism (№ 3, 2014)
The article examines the influence that Konstantin Leontiev works had on the formation of the Eurasianism through its founders. Social conditions of Russian emigration, which determined the formation of classical Eurasianism, are characterized.
Keywords: Konstantin Leontiev, classical Eurasianism, Russian Diaspora, Russian conservatism.
Mikhail Maslin
Classic Eurasianism and Its Modern Transformations (№ 4, 2015)
The article reveals the essence of classical Eurasianism in the 1920-1930s. The author makes a general critical evaluation of A. Dugin’s neoeurasianism. Neoeurasianism distorts classical Eurasianism, presenting the image full of xenophobia, racism and aggression. Meanwhile, the author demonstrates the intellectual potential of undistorted classical Eurasianism taking the example of A. Panarin’s heritage.
Keywords: Eurasianism, Neourasianism, Orientalism, Geopolitics, Russian Emigration, Atlantism, Russophobia, Mysticism, Conspirology.
Mikhail Maslin
Russia and Europe: Dialogue on Russian Philosophy (№ 3, 2015)
The author focuses attention on the recent publishing sensation – «The Black Notebooks» by Martin Heidegger, which emphasized the need for broadening the philosophical dialogue between Europe and Russia. The article analyzes the evaluation of Russian philosophy in the West: from the first study of T. Masaryk (1913) to the works of sovietologists and modern experts in Russian philosophical studies.
Keywords: “The Black Notebooks” by M. Heidegger, “Russia and Europe” by T. Masaryk, Russian Emigration, Russian Philosophy Abroad, Sovietology and Russian Studies, Europe-Russia Dialogue.
Oleg Matveychev
“The Philosophy of Inequality” by N. Berdyaev – the Manifesto of Liberal Conservatism (№ 3, 2015)
The report describes the concept of the ideological mix. Analyzing “The Philosophy of Inequality”, the author illustrates that N. Berdyaev voices purely liberal-conservative ideas in it. This fact accounts for valid interpretation and popularity of the book in Western Europe in the 1920s and 1930s.
Keywords: “The Philosophy of Inequality” by N. Berdyaev, Ideological Mixes, Liberal Conservatism.
Leonid Polyakov
The Eternal and Momentary in Russian Conservatism (№ 4, 2015)
The article pinpoints the plurality of meanings of the terms “conservatism” and “conservatives” which were in use in the Russian philosophical and political thought in second half of the XIX – early XX centuries, and gives a critical evaluation. The study starts with Nikolai Berdyaev’s definition of “conservatism” which poses the key dilemma: either to mercilessly criticize the momentary from the point of view of “eternity”, or to ascribe to the existing momentary a rank of “Eternal”. Through this dilemma it is possible to demonstrate how authentic conservative principles and meanings could have been presented in different and alternative ideological paradigms. The everlasting character of this dilemma in the pre-revolutionary Russian conservative thought for a long time deprived of a possibility for political representation, brought about a fatal gap between conservatism “from above” and radical-left mood “from below”. The ultimate outcome was the collapse of the Empire. The contemporary situation in Russia allows to escape such a scenario through assuming conservative principles as “spiritual bonds” tying authorities and the people.
Keywords: Conservatism, Liberalism, Progressivism, Reactionary, Revolution.
Alexei Rutkevich
Peculiarities of Russian Conservatism. Map and Territory (№ 4, 2015)
Russian conservatism makes part of European political thought, as well as Russian party practices in Russia in the XIX century. The article consistently analyzes the stages of development of conservative ideology in Western Europe and in Russia.
Keywords: Ideology, Baroque, Romanticism, Conservatism, Reaction, Liberal Conservatism, Political Philosophy, Map, Territory.
Alexander Tsipko
Soviet Intellectual Community Converting to Russian Conservatism (On Spontaneous Anti-Communism Untying USSR Ideological Bonds) (№ 4, 2015)
The article identifies the interdependence of conservatism, including its Russian version, and anti-communism. It focuses on the ideology of the “Russian Party”, a departure in Soviet political thinking in the 1960s-1970s. The article contains its comparative analysis with the ideology and policies of “Polish Party”, the Polish intellectual community of the 1970s-1980s leading the “Solidarity” movement. It also highlights the differences between the “Russian party” and the Sixtiers.
Keywords: Soviet Political Thinking, “Russian Party”, Conservatism, Anti-Communism, The Sixtiers, “Polish Party”.
Vasiliy Vanchugov
From «Island» to «Fortress»: Methaphor as an Instrument of Political Analysis and Practical Politics (№ 1, 2015)
This article is devoted to the representation of ideas, in particular, the use in the field of geopolitics, metaphors, analogies, comparisons, as well as cases of mythologizing ideologies. For this purpose, the author has made a comparison of the various narratives, methods and techniques of modern production of knowledge in the humanities in general, and in politics in particular. Taking the complex of ideas from the book “The Island of Russia”, the author of the article is going to highlight one of his key works in the context of contemporary issues, because, in his opinion, the most topical issue is the “dismantling” of the empire, discussion of which gives us the opportunity to be engaged in designing future.
Keywords: politics, geopolitics, history, philosophy of history, metaphor, formula, hermeneutics, myth, empire, power, governance.
Vasily Vanchugov
The Image of Europe in Ethnosophical Portraits by Russian Philosophers (№ 3, 2015)
The author refers to the part of the philosophical legacy in which Russian philosophers dwell on national characteristics and qualities, on perception peculiarities of European peoples, on collective European identity and its positive and negative attributes. Thus, the author manages to highlight information which affects the images of “otherness” nowadays as well as it did in the past, and to bring to the fore the role of intellectuals in creating stereotypes, adopted by the masses, which use them as a “formula” to account for the behavior of the opponent.
Keywords: Ethnosophy, Ethnology, Ethnography, Nation, Mentality, National Image, Stereotype, Collective Soul, Psychology, Mythology, Philosophy, Regional Studies, Country Study, Regional Geography, Geopolitics, Europe, Identity, Self-Knowledge.
Lyubov Bibikova
Postmodernism and the Value Crisis of the European Historical Science (№ 3, 2015)
The article analyzes causes and consequences of the shift towards postmodernism in Europe’s historiography against a background of social and political trends in Europe in the late 20th-early 21stcentury. The text focuses on the crisis of values in European studies of history, and, above all, the philosophy of history, which has been driven by postmodernism to eschew classical positivist notions of objectivity and validity as the fundamental values of historical knowledge. Consequently, leading European historical methodologists have arrived at the conclusion that historical science is predominantly aimed at reaching and maintaining public consensus on various political trends. The state of affairs in the 20th century impelled European historians to search for the roots of the European unity.
Keywords: Postmodernism, Philosophy of History, Historical Science of Europe, Historiography, Memory, Microhistory, Linguistic Shift.
Andrey Ivanov
The Slogan “Russia for Russians” in Conservative Thought in the Second Half of the XIX Century (№ 4, 2015)
The article studies the origin of the slogan “Russia for Russians” and its conservative interpretations in the second half of the XIX century. The study is based on numerous works, most of which have never been previously used. The author analyzes the attitude to the slogan “Russia for Russians” of well-known conservatives, such as Emperor Alexander III, V. Skaryatin, I. Aksakov, M. Katkov, M. Skobelev, S. Syromyatnikov, V. Rozanov, A. Suvorin and others.
Keywords: “Russia for Russians”, Russian Conservatism, Russian Nationalism, Pan-Slavism, Emperor Alexander III.
Stanislav Khatuntsev
Europe: Sovereignty, Cultural Identity and the Future of Civilization (№ 3, 2015)
The article dwells on the issue of fading political subjectivity, sovereignty and ethno-cultural identity of the European civilization. The author believes that Europe has entered the fourth and final stage of the developmental cycle it proclaimed – the Era of Global Cities, and draws historical parallels between the modern community of Celtic-Romano-Germanic peoples and in the ancient world of the Ist century BC – the Vth century BC.
Keywords: Sovereignty, Ethnic and Cultural Identity, Europe, USA, Civilization, Atlanticism, Russia, External Proletariat, Internal Proletariat, Urban Stage of the Formation Cycle.
Yegor Kholmogorov
Russia’s Shift to Conservatism from the Global Historical Perspective of Fernand Braudel (№ 3, 2015)
The author expresses doubt about the validity of possible predictions, while pointing to reasons for the current civilizational split in the West. While analyzing possible splits and alliances among civilizations, he appeals to the thesis of Fernand Braudel, which runs as follows: “A civilization does not deserve the name if it does not eschew something, if it does not reject something.” The author argues that by defending traditional values, modern Russia lives up to the criterion of rejection, and supposes that conservatives in the West will be perceived as pro-Russian, as their vision of an individual coincides with the one promoted and cherished in Russia.
Keywords: Civilization, Traditional Values, Russia and West.
Yury Kondakov
The Crisis in State-Church Relations and Church Conservatism in the First Half of the XIX Century (№ 4, 2015)
The article deals with state-church relations in the first half of the XIX century. At that time, the conservative wing of the Russian clergy opposed the religious reforms. A series of individual statements was followed by the emergence of the Russian Orthodox opposition movement. Fierce political struggle resulted in the victory of the conservative clergy.
Keywords: State, Church, Conservatism, Clergy, Political Struggle, Freemasonry, Orthodoxy, Christianity, Religious Literature.
Aleksander Kotov
“Modern Non-Feudal Monarchy”: Russian Conservative Press Searching for National Ideology in the Late 19th Century (№ 4, 2015)
The article classifies and analyzes different forms of Russian conservative nationalism in the late 19th century: M. Katkov’s bureaucratic nationalism, late Slavophiles’ liberal nationalism, R. Fadeev and V. Meshchersky’s aristocratic conservatism, T. Filippov’s orthodox traditionalism, K. Leontiev’s conservative romanticism, and L. Tikhomirov’s neo-conservatism.
Keywords: Conservatism, Nationalism, Political Journalism, Katkov, Aksakov, Gilyarov-Platonov, Kireev, Fadeev, Meshchersky, Filippov, Leontiev, Tikhomirov
Aleksey Kozhevnikov
Russia’s Present and Future in A. Solzhenitsyn’s and I. Shafarevich’s Works: “From Under the Rubble” Collection (1974) (№ 4, 2015)
The article analyzes A. Solzhenitsyn’s and I. Shafarevich’s political essays. Solzhenitsyn’s and Shafarevich’s articles, published in the “From Under the Rubble” collection, dwelt on the historical problems and development of the Russian nation.
Keywords: A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Shafarevich, “From Under the Rubble” Collection, Russian National Values, Historical Problems of the Russian Nation, Development of the Russian Nation.
Alexey Kozyrev
“At the Walls of Chersonese”: Russian Philosophy and Crimea (№ 3, 2014)
The article includes three sketches dedicated to the eminent personalities of the Russian philosophical culture, whose lives were strongly connected with the Crimea. Writer, philosopher and publicist Konstantin Leontyev (1831–1891) took part in the Crimean military campaign of 1853–1856 as a medical officer in Kerch. He was the one who suggested creating «the uchebnitsa of natural sciences» in Nikitsky botanical garden. Nikolai Berdyaev (1874–1948) had deep existential experiences while visiting the house Evgenia Gertsyk in Sudak in 1909 and 1910. In 1914, Berdyaev’s ideological antagonist Ivan Ilyin (1883–1954), who was returning home from Germany after the beginning of World War I, happened to visit the same house. The town of Oleiz near Yalta is related to Sergei Bulgakov (1871–1944), who often stayed in the father-in-law manor. In 1909 Bulgakov lost his little son Ivan there. This event turned out to be the defining one in the thinker’s life. In 1918, Sergei Bulgakov comes back to the Crimea as a priest. There he wrote «The philosophy of name» and «The tragedy of philosophy». In the Crimea he thought about the correctness of a historiosophical choice of Russia, which resulted in the dialogues called “At the walls of Chersonese”. He was exiled from Sevastopol under the resolution of GPU in 1922, and never returned to homeland.
Keywords: life esthetic, historiosophy, landscape, intimacy, freedom, spirit, spiritual trials, imyaslavye (glorification of name), Catholicism, Bolshevism.
Mikhail Maslin
Konstantin Leontiev and Eurasianism. Lessons of Russian Conservatism (№ 3, 2014)
The article examines the influence that Konstantin Leontiev works had on the formation of the Eurasianism through its founders. Social conditions of Russian emigration, which determined the formation of classical Eurasianism, are characterized.
Keywords: Konstantin Leontiev, classical Eurasianism, Russian Diaspora, Russian conservatism.
Arina Meshcheryakova
“Poetic Conservatism” under Nicholas I (№ 4, 2015)
The article deals with Russian conservatism in its heyday, i.e. in the reign of Nicholas I. The article puts special emphasis on Russian classical writers and poets, such as A. Pushkin, V. Zhukovsky, F. Tyutchev, and P. Vyazemsky and their participation in the conservative movement. Their views and public life are studied within the context of the key political events of the epoch, such as the November Uprising, European revolutions of 1848–1849, Crimean War of 1853–1856 and their impact on the literary works.
Keywords: Russian Conservatism, Russian Literature, Orthodox Christianity, Monarchy, West, Russophobia, Anti-Westernism.
Oleg Milevsky
Russian Economic Alternatives: Conservative Approach (№ 4, 2015)
The article analyzes the approaches to Russia’s socio-economic development adopted by conservative thinkers in the late XIX – early XX centuries.
Keywords: Conservatism, Socio-Economic Development, State, Autarchy, Protectionism, Financial Reform, Factory, Agrarian Issue, Social Politics, Labour Issue.
Arkady Minakov
The Birth of Russian Conservatism: Lessons of the Past (№ 3, 2014)
The report describes the specific features оf Russian conservatism in the first quarter of the XIX-th century. Russian conservatism was a reaction to the radical modernization initiated by autocracy in XVIII and at the beginning of XIX century. The author analyses the main aspects of the activity of early Russian conservatives: their centres, ideological trends, peculiarity of their views, their influence on the internal politic of Russian Empire. The study analyzes the role of conservatives in the events of 1812-1815, presented the typology of the early Russian conservatism.
Keywords: Russian conservatism, westernization, Gallomania, nationalism, “Russian Rarty”, role of conservatives in the events of 1812-1815, typology of the early Russian conservatism.
Arkady Minakov
Аnti-Westernism in Early Russian Conservatism (№ 3, 2015)
The article analyzes the root causes of Russian conservatism in the early nineteenth century. Russian conservatism arose as a reaction against Gallophilia (Gallomania), a strain of Russian Westernism. Early Russian conservatism took shape amid full-scale aggression by Napoleonic France.
Keywords: Russian conservatism, Gallomania, Westernism
Arkady Minakov
Conservative “Russian party” in the Early XIX century (№ 4, 2015)
The article discusses the history of the conservative “Russian party” in the early nineteenth century, its activities and attitudes of the key party members, main viewpoints, periodicals and associations.
Keywords: Early Russian Conservatism, Conservative “Russian Party”, Nikolay Karamzin, Alexander Shishkov, Fyodor Rostopchin, Sergey Glinka, Grand Duchess Ekaterina Pavlovna.
Arkady Minakov
Russian Conservatism in Modern Russian Historiography (№ 4, 2015)
The article examines the key stages and characteristics of Russian conservatism in the last two decades. It also analyzes the main scientific papers on Russian conservatives.
Keywords: Historiography of Russian Conservatism, Russian Conservatism.
Igor Omelyanchuk
Russian Conservatism Searching for Party Self-Determination in the Early Twentieth Century (№ 4, 2015)
The article describes the first attempt to institutionalize Russian conservatism made by the Black Hundreds, which emerged in 1901, and the reasons for the failure in 1917.
Keywords: Russian Empire, Black Hundreds, Monarchist Organizations, Conservatism.
Tatyana Plyashchenko
Conservative Liberalism in Russia the Post-reform Period: The History of a Failure (№ 4, 2015)
The article dwells on the peculiarities of Russian conservative liberalism in the second half of the 19th century and its proponents, including A. Gradovsky, K. Kavelin, and B. Chicherin. The article gives special prominence to the policies of the Russian conservative liberals at both theoretical and operative level.
Keywords: Conservative Liberalism, Liberal Nationalism, Nation-State.
Andrei Ratchinski
Alexander I of Russia and the Holy Alliance of 1815 (№ 3, 2015)
The report interprets Emperor Alexander I’s contribution to a new world order, the Holy Alliance, which underpinned the collective security system. During his reign Petersburg was virtually the capital of Europe, and the world’s fate was decided in the Winter Palace. The expert ponders on how to account for slanders against Alexander I, which made him a most maligned figure in Russian history, and arrives at the conclusion that slanderers are resentful of the Emperor’s victory against “global revolution” and Napoleon’s totalitarian world order.
Keywords: Alexander I of Russia, Holy Alliance.
Svetlana Sankova
Russian Nationalists Party: Reality Without Myths (№ 4, 2015)
The study deals with the emergence of Russian National Union, a Russian moderate conservative party, in the early 20th century, and reveals the essence of its relations with P. Stolypin. The author expatiates on the peculiar party ideology of Russian nationalists and characterizes key party leaders. The paper also describes the main activities of the party in the III and IV State Duma.
Keywords: All-Russian National Union, Nationalism, Moderate Right, Progressive Block, State Duma, P. Stolypin, M. Menshikov, V. Shulgin, P. Balashov, Metropolitan Eulogius.
Aleksey Shchavelev
The Islander or Thinking about “Conjunctures of Land and Time…” (№ 1, 2015)
The paper is a survey commentary on the last book by V.L. Tsymburskiy “Conjunctures of Land and Time”.
Keywords: V.L. Tsymburskiy, review, philosophy of history, historiography
Alexander Tsipko
Soviet Intellectual Community Converting to Russian Conservatism (On Spontaneous Anti-Communism Untying USSR Ideological Bonds) (№ 4, 2015)
The article identifies the interdependence of conservatism, including its Russian version, and anti-communism. It focuses on the ideology of the “Russian Party”, a departure in Soviet political thinking in the 1960s-1970s. The article contains its comparative analysis with the ideology and policies of “Polish Party”, the Polish intellectual community of the 1970s-1980s leading the “Solidarity” movement. It also highlights the differences between the “Russian party” and the Sixtiers.
Keywords: Soviet Political Thinking, “Russian Party”, Conservatism, Anti-Communism, The Sixtiers, “Polish Party”.
Sergey Udalov
Empire at anchor: Conservative Ideology in Russia in the Second Quarter of the Nineteenth Century (№ 4, 2015)
The article deals with the state conservative ideology in the reign of Nicholas I. Тhe article addresses the influence of ideology on the state educational policy against the background of the changing public opinion in Russia.
Keywords: Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality, State and Social Conservatism, Enlightenment, Censorship, Public Opinion.
Yan Vaslavsky
Russia and Europe: A New Crossroads (№ 3, 2015)
The article analyses the changing concept of united Europe from the times of Napoleon Bonaparte. The author ponders on two visions of European politics and development promoted by advocates of Napoleon Bonaparte and philosophers who eschewed the Napoleonic imperial model, respectively. Moreover, the article seeks to study the current relations between Europe and Russia given the changing concept of united Europe.
Keywords: France, Napoleon Bonaparte, Pan-European idea, Napoleonic Wars, Russia and Europe, Russian-European Relations.
«Essays on conservatism» presents the retrospective of the conservative thought and publishes articles by contemporary philosophers, politologists, sociologists and economists dealing with the same theme. it also publishes the proceedings of academic conference and other fora. the journal is published by the ISEPR foundation and disseminated across education facilities and libraries.