Po-Yi Hung (洪伯邑) | National Taiwan University (original) (raw)

Journal Article (Peer-Reviewed) by Po-Yi Hung (洪伯邑)

Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 2019

The development of offshore wind farms has been a way for the state to repackage national develop... more The development of offshore wind farms has been a way for the state to repackage national development projects using green energy discourses. In Taiwan, where the further development of nuclear power is suspended due to public antinuclear sentiment, offshore wind farms have been heavily promoted as a way of meeting electricity demand. The planned site for offshore wind farms, mainly the intertidal zone along the coast of Changhua County, overlaps with both oyster farms and the habitat of Taiwanese humpbacked dolphins, categorized as a critically endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. This has resulted in a clash between conserving the oyster farming landscape, protecting an endangered species, and developing green energy. Facing this dilemma, pro–wind farm discourses that highlight concerns about global climate change have gradually supplanted those stressing the welfare of oysters and dolphins, even though the latter have been used successfully as local icons by movements opposing previous development projects on the intertidal zone. This article reconsiders the politics of territorialization implied by the “green” label affixed to offshore wind farm projects and other forms of green energy in general. As such, the meaning of offshore wind farms, as a newly discovered energy resource, is intertwined with the changing meanings of both dolphins and oyster farms, as rival nonhuman objects of resource exploitation and natural conservation. The territorialization of such resources in the emerging discursive space of green energy has proceeded via relational placemaking with nonlinear connections among multiple human and nonhuman elements.
Key Words: conservation, intertidal zone, landscape, renewable resources, resource frontier.

文化研究 Router: A Journal of Cultural Studies, 2018

本文結合邊界 ( b o r d e r ) 與移動 ( m o b i l i t y ) 的理論取徑，從茶作為物在臺灣、越南之間的農技轉移與跨境貿易中，重... more 本文結合邊界 ( b o r d e r ) 與移動 ( m o b i l i t y ) 的理論取徑，從茶作為物在臺灣、越南之間的農技轉移與跨境貿易中，重新思索臺灣茶與越南茶之間貌似對立卻又互依的關係，並藉此再思考食物農業產銷中的本土所謂何物。越南茶與臺灣茶之間的關聯，隱含臺灣的南向政策、農技轉移，臺灣茶進出口市場的消長、食安議題、食農體系全球化與本土農業保衛戰等多層意義;同時越南林同 ( L a m D o n g ) 省地區跨境農技移轉的茶葉地景，其生成與轉變背後有著臺灣、中國兩岸政治經濟動態過程下的臺越關係。臺灣茶的品種、製茶技術、產業經營者往越南跨境移動，當臺灣國內開始強化本土茶的意涵，從而形塑與包括越南茶在內的境外茶的對立時，邊界與移動的力道的確並存於臺灣茶與越南茶兼具互斥與互依的複雜關中。要解讀境外越南茶與本土臺灣茶之間的互斥和互依，研究者必須參與到茶生產消費的日常生活中，從中獲取詮釋邊界與移動如何互為表裡的資料。茶的物質性牽起非線性的人與非人的組裝，讓越南茶鬆動臺灣茶的本土劃界，移動進入臺灣的通路，形成本土與境外，邊界與移動互為表裡的實作過程。Taking tea trade between Vietnam and Taiwan as an example, this essay aims to reconsider the re-localization of agro-food production and consumption through understanding the politics of (de)bordering and (im)mobilization in local food system (LFS). Starting from the early 1990s, a group of Taiwanese entrepreneurs and tea merchants started their tea plantations and production in Vietnam, especially in the Province of Lam Dong. Instead of using the tea trees that originally grew in Vietnam, these Taiwanese entrepreneurs and tea merchants transplanted tea trees of improved varieties from Taiwan. Additionally, they also brought along the whole “package” of processing techniques. In other words, they believed they also produced Taiwanese tea, whereas the production location was in Vietnam instead. In Taiwan, the “local” production of tea has declined due to a variety of reasons. Nevertheless, the market demand of tea has increased mainly because of the increasing consumption of bottled teas, handmade tea drinks at chain stores, and the tea for touristic souvenirs. As a result, strong demand for imported tea, mainly from Vietnam, has increased to meet the growing consumption. However, the emerging ethos of LFS in Taiwan has created a discourse of local authenticity in agriculture, including tea production. In consequence, the decreasing local tea production in Taiwan has been labeled as the only authentic tea product of Taiwan. In accordance, many people regard Vietnamese tea, including those produced by Taiwanese tea entrepreneurs in Lam Dong, as a threat tarnishing the authenticity of local tea in Taiwan. Based on the empirical data collected in both Taiwan and Vietnam, we argue that the local food movement has been a circulation assemblage with an interface between border work and material mobility. From that, we problematize the emerging pursuit of a purified and essentialized local food, Taiwanese tea in particular.

Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 2018

This essay outlines the symbolic and material transformation of mountain agriculture in Taiwan by... more This essay outlines the symbolic and material transformation of mountain agriculture in Taiwan by tracing the historical trajectories of temperate fruit production, and of apple growing in particular. Specifically, we look at the area of Lishan, a major production centre for apples and other temperate fruits in Taiwan's Central Mountain Range in order to explore the relationship between the mountain agriculture and the politics of territorialisation. Focusing on the post‐war era, we argue that the development of mountain agriculture in Taiwan, and upland fruit growing in particular, has operated as a ‘more‐than‐human political technology’. The territory of Lishan is not just a passive geographical space, but engaged in a process of becoming, which re‐makes the mountain areas of Taiwan into ‘apple zones’ both spatially and socially. The spatial dimension centres on processes of political territorialisation, economic deterritorialisation and combined reterritorialisations whereby apple plantations have transformed the landscape from one focused on strategic politics to one embedded within development and market frameworks which entail their own particular forms of politics. The social dimensions are centred on the politics of forging connections among different elements circulating through the mountain areas of Taiwan, including apples, soldiers, transport infrastructures and agricultural policies.

Space and Culture, 2018

Yuanshengtai, a term derived from Chinese idea of ecotourism to indicate the pristine condition o... more Yuanshengtai, a term derived from Chinese idea of ecotourism to indicate the pristine condition of environment, has been connected to an imagined authentic indigenous culture in China. With the mark of Zhang Yimou—one of the most famous film director in China, the show Impression Lijiang has strived for exploiting the symbols and icons of ethnic minority culture in order to invent an imaginary space for tourists to experience a yuanshengtai borderland in southwest China. A UNESCO site, Lijiang is known for its geographic imagery of cultural and natural landscape and as the brightest prospect for expressing Chinese nationalism and cultivating modern Chinese tourists. As such, it has been gradually transformed into a stage for displaying and (dis)locating the spatial imagery of home for Chinese tourists in post-socialist China. This article illustrates how yuanshengtai performances are a cultural mechanism of the Chinese state to spark a yearning for home. We will proceed with a theoretical approach relating home and homemaking in China's cultural politics. After noting the research methods, we contextualize the development of yuanshengtai performances in Southwest China.

台灣土地的研究 Journal of Taiwan Land Research, 2017

戰後台灣高山農業的發展之初並不僅僅是種植溫帶水果的任務,也是一項政治任務,國民政府藉由將自然地景轉變為農地的過程,深化其對高山土地與人的控制,成為國家實質的「領域」(territory),也... more 戰後台灣高山農業的發展之初並不僅僅是種植溫帶水果的任務,也是一項政治任務,國民政府藉由將自然地景轉變為農地的過程,深化其對高山土地與人的控制,成為國家實質的「領域」(territory),也就是政治領域化的過程。我們以梨山的高山農業種植(以蘋果為縮影)來討論這一個故事。中橫公路修築後一連串的土地測量、分配與整地的工作,表面是發展高山農業的措施,背後挾帶的是國家對高山地區的實質掌控;然而,當土地與其上的經濟作物都從這個過程成為「財產」 (property),市場經濟的運作邏輯也就跟著深入梨山地區的高山農業。在不同事件的作用力下,我們以蘋果為案例,包括台灣戰後美援政治下的蘋果意象、對進口蘋果開放的農業全球化政策、社會環境意識抬頭下的高山農業土地利用限縮、食安議題下對「本土蘋果」的重新想像與認同等等,也讓梨山地區的蘋果,甚或整個台灣的高山農業,不斷地在變動的市場中持續著對外不同人事物的聯繫,而這些更迭的聯繫便是經濟去領域化、再領域化、再去領域化連續進程的體現。因此,從戰後台灣高山農業種植到產銷的案例,政治的領域化啟動了後續經濟去領域化的動能, 而所謂的政治領域化與經濟去領域化的對立,儼然過度簡化了政治力、經濟力與領域三者的關係。

交界於泰國、緬甸與寮國的金三角地區從 1920 年代以來,便是世界主要的鴉片生產基地。至今,緬甸仍是僅次於阿富汗外最大的鴉片生產國。然而,同屬於金三角區域的泰國北部地區,其鴉片生產地景已全然... more 交界於泰國、緬甸與寮國的金三角地區從 1920 年代以來,便是世界主要的鴉片生產基地。至今,緬甸仍是僅次於阿富汗外最大的鴉片生產國。然而,同屬於金三角區域的泰國北部地區,其鴉片生產地景已全然改變。當今泰北邊境─特別是鄰接緬甸的清邁府與清萊府的高地─已轉型成多樣的經濟作品種植,如蔬菜、水果、咖啡、橡膠與本文所關注的臺灣茶。從毒品罌粟種植至合法的經濟作物栽種,如此明顯的農業地景轉變動力來自於泰王山地計畫的施行,而臺灣正是該計畫的主要參與國之一,成功地將高山農業技術與物作引入泰北山林。臺泰合作的農業計畫不僅牽涉泰國山林原住民,還納入了該地區的雲南華人。該社群原為國民黨軍隊,在國共內戰失利後輾轉遷移到泰北山林。在臺泰農業計畫中,他們從戮力作戰的軍人,轉換成農夫,甚至發展成資本家。在計畫裡眾多作物中, 本文選擇「臺灣茶」作為視角,追隨農業技術從臺灣轉移至泰北山林的時空軌跡, 說明農業技術轉移不僅是「經濟上」抹除抹除鴉片生產的國際合作計畫,亦為「政治上」讓泰北山林得以控管的地緣政治計畫,更是帶動泰北山林現代化,發展休閒與國際茶產業的重要動力。為解釋農業計畫對泰北山林地景與居民生活的劇烈改變,本文將農業計畫視為「不僅人為的政治技術」,而農業計畫中種種技術網絡的移動與實踐,正好體現泰北山林政治領域化與經濟去領域化過程。

Political Geography, Dec 30, 2017

This paper engages with the concept of territorialization through telling the story of the transf... more This paper engages with the concept of territorialization through telling the story of the transformation of Chinese former Kuomintang (KMT) soldiers of Yunnanese origin and their descendants living in northern Thailand, from being opium and heroin traders and smugglers, to becoming mercenaries fighting against the Communist Party of Thailand in northern Thailand on behalf of the Thai military, to finally transforming into tea farmers and traders through receiving development aid support provided from the Republic of China (Taiwan). Taiwan's development aid was ostensibly only for humanitarian purposes, but in reality also had important underlying political objectives. We argue territorialization is a more-than-human political technology. In particular, it is argued that territorialization frequently combines both military politics and development politics, even though the literature often separates these two elements, as if they are not frequently intertwined and interrelated. Here, we show how these two forms of politics, one explicit and one much less so, can come together to create new social and economic realities, ones with important geographical and geopolitical implications.

In this paper, I argue that frontiers are dilemmas composed of multiple dualities, be they exclus... more In this paper, I argue that frontiers are dilemmas composed of multiple dualities, be they exclusive and inclusive powers, connected space and national periphery, or modernity and primitiveness. These dilemmas, in consequence, become the mechanism to create a leeway for the state to ‘tailor’ different meanings of frontier to meet the contingent market demands. I use tea production on China’s southwest frontier as an example to demonstrate that dilemma is not an end result, but a mechanism to rearticulate the relationship among frontier, the state and the market economy. Specifically, I argue that dilemmas on China’s southwest frontier have been forged by the Chinese state with its incompatible desires between ‘modernisation’ and ‘primitiveness’ of the tea landscapes in Yunnan, a province on China’s southwest frontier. Meanwhile, the incompatible desires and the resulting dilemmas on China’s southwest frontier have further mobilised the state to flexibly rework its power to reconstruct the frontier to meet contingent market demand. Based on the shifting meanings of tea landscapes, the state has flexibly ‘shuttled through’ the dilemmas between development of modernisation and preservation of primitiveness on the frontier.

The simultaneous but incompatible desires for both ‘‘tradition’’ and ‘‘advancement’’ have produce... more The simultaneous but incompatible desires for both ‘‘tradition’’ and ‘‘advancement’’ have produced the ‘‘ambiguity of modernity’’ in the areas of minority nationalities (shaoshu minzu diqu) on China’s south- west frontier. This paper, in accordance, directly addresses the ambiguity of modernity through the inves- tigation of the tea landscape in Yunnan. This essay builds on Aihwa Ong and Stephen Collier’s ‘‘global assemblage’’ framework to analyze the relationship between the ‘‘global form’’ of modernity and the sit- uated assemblages of ‘‘ambiguity of modernity’’ in southwest China. Data are based on ethnographic research in the village of Mangjing, located in Jingmai Mountain, a renowned tea mountain in Yunnan. Most of the villagers in Mangjing are one of the minority nationalities of China, Bulang. I discuss the state-led project in transforming the modern tea plantation for ‘‘restoring’’ a landscape deemed as ‘‘ancient tea forest’’ (guchalin) in Mangjing. In addition, I address Bulang villagers’ and government offi- cials’ multiple responses to the transformation of tea landscapes. I argue that the transformation of tea landscapes has been the practice to turn the ‘‘global form’’ of modernity into the shifting ‘‘assemblages’’ amongst tradition, modernity, science, and nature. The ambiguity of modernity has emerged from the shifting assemblages, providing both the state and Bulang villagers more leeway to symbolically and physically (re)produce meanings for the tea landscapes to meet the contingent market demand for tea. The transformation of tea landscapes, however, has become another process to perpetuate Bulang villag- ers’ social status of being ‘‘low quality’’ as China’s minority nationalities.

Book by Po-Yi Hung (洪伯邑)

In this book, Po-Yi Hung uses tea production as a lens to investigate the tension between nature ... more In this book, Po-Yi Hung uses tea production as a lens to investigate the tension between nature and society under the market economy in frontier China. By focusing on the landscape of the 'ancient tea forest' (guchalin), this book aims to understand the interactions among tea trees, entrepreneurs, the state, and the Bulang, an ethnic minority population. Intensive ethnographic research conducted by the author examines local Bulang villagers' everyday lives as entrepreneurs in the market economy at a time of changing moralities and cultural renovations. The author explores the dilemmas that arise in this unique region between tradition and modernity, territorial margin and connected space, and nature and development.

Book Chapters by Po-Yi Hung (洪伯邑)

在面對全球變遷的相關知識的認定，我們習慣把科學家們在實驗室或電腦模擬出來的「專家知識」（expert knowledge）當作唯一客觀理解全球變遷的知識產出，進而把所謂日常生活累積呈現的「常民知... more 在面對全球變遷的相關知識的認定，我們習慣把科學家們在實驗室或電腦模擬出來的「專家知識」（expert knowledge）當作唯一客觀理解全球變遷的知識產出，進而把所謂日常生活累積呈現的「常民知識」（lay knowledge）當作非正規非客觀系統的知識。然而，如果我們進一步想要讓全球變遷的知識更貼近人民實際生活的尺度，那麼那些從在地脈絡累積出來的「常民知識」就不能再被忽略而隔絕於現有的「專家知識」體系之外。本文主張，對「常民知識」的重新重視，並非要與「專家知識」作出截然的區分，也不是要浪漫化「常民知識」的本身；相對的，我們都必須承認，在理解、制訂與執行全球變遷政策的過程中，沒有任何一項知識體系是完美無缺的，包括「專家知識」與「常民知識」；在這樣的情況下，應該提倡的，是「專家知識」與「常民知識」之間的互通有無，科學家們與一般大眾之間的相互合作與溝通，讓鉅觀的科學知識與微觀的常民知識成為相輔相成的關係，跳脫當前「專家政治」在處理全球變遷議題的缺陷。

Book Reviews by Po-Yi Hung (洪伯邑)

Papers by Po-Yi Hung (洪伯邑)

The China Quarterly

While most ethnic Chinese in northern Thailand are Thai citizens now, their everyday lives are a ... more While most ethnic Chinese in northern Thailand are Thai citizens now, their everyday lives are a site where we can witness the political power entanglement of China, Taiwan and Thailand. With this in mind, this paper aims to look into the relationship between global China and overseas Chinese from the perspective of the ethnic Chinese in the northern borderlands of Thailand. The purpose is not just to disclose the multiplicity of global China in people's everyday lives, but also to complicate the picture of overseas Chinese as portrayed in top-down grand narratives about global China. I argue that the ongoing re-Sinicization in South-East Asia and the territorial geopolitics among China, Taiwan and Thailand have opened a conceptual space for the ethnic Chinese in northern Thailand to flexibly articulate themselves within the changing geopolitical economy. I use tea production and related Chinese-language education programmes, two separate but intertwined cases, to address these ...

Asian Smallholders in Comparative Perspective, 2019

Asian Smallholders in Comparative Perspective provides the first multicountry, inter-disciplinary... more Asian Smallholders in Comparative Perspective provides the first multicountry, inter-disciplinary analysis of the single most important social and economic formation in the Asian countryside: the smallholder. Based on ten core country chapters, the volume describes and explains the persistence, transformations, functioning and future of the smallholder and smallholdings across East and Southeast Asia. As well as providing a source book for scholars working on agrarian change in the region, it also engages with a number of key current areas of debate, including: the nature and direction of the agrarian transition in Asia, and its distinctiveness vis à vis transitions in the global North; the persistence of the smallholder notwithstanding deep and rapid structural change; and the question of the efficiency and productivity of smallholder-based farming set against concerns over global and national food security.

Asian Journal of Social Science

Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 2019

文化研究 Router: A Journal of Cultural Studies, 2018

Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 2018

Space and Culture, 2018

台灣土地的研究 Journal of Taiwan Land Research, 2017

Political Geography, Dec 30, 2017

The China Quarterly

Asian Smallholders in Comparative Perspective, 2019

Asian Journal of Social Science

Progress in Human Geography, 2022

While borders traverse both land and sea, current research has mostly concentrated on issues conc... more While borders traverse both land and sea, current research has mostly concentrated on issues concerning terrestrial borders. Simultaneously, a new body of scholarship has shown how the seemingly boundless oceans are in actuality subject to a variety of bordering forces. As such, we review current research on maritime borders in geography and other related disciplines in three categories: oceanic resource extraction and environmental conservation, volume geography and wet ontology, and concepts of ocean frontiers and voluminous states. Conclusively, we propose land-ocean inter-bordering, multiple materialities, and mobile state power as three future issues to respond to the rapid-changing maritime borders.

Space and Culture, 2018

Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 2018

Political Geography, 2017

Tea Production, Land Use Politics, and Ethnic Minorities, 2015

The fresh buds of the ancient tea trees, which were harvested in spring, were the prized material... more The fresh buds of the ancient tea trees, which were harvested in spring, were the prized material used to make “spring ancient tree tea” (gushu chuncha), a highly valued product in the Pu’er tea market. Villagers were busiest harvesting the fresh tea leaves from late March to late April. During the early spring of 2011, however, Mangjing villagers had a much worse tea leaf harvest because of a disastrous worm infestation. According to villagers of all ages, the number of caterpillars that had rapidly appeared in the tea forest was unprecedented. Because of the infestation, almost all the fresh buds, particularly in the Aileng Mountain area, had been eaten.

Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 2016

Tea Production, Land Use Politics, and Ethnic Minorities, 2015

The tea story of Mangjing is ongoing and incomplete. Kangnan, one of the village officials, repor... more The tea story of Mangjing is ongoing and incomplete. Kangnan, one of the village officials, reported recently that since I left in May 2011, the prefectural government of Pu’er City, as well as the provincial government of Yunnan, is planning to submit an application to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization to make the ancient tea forest around Mangjing an internationally recognized World Heritage site. He also said that Mangjing was undergoing a new round of construction meant to support tourism. For tourism-development plans to succeed, according to Kangnan, “their (Bulang villagers’) culture has to be well-preserved.” Mangjing was one of the places where the authentic tradition of Bulang culture needed to be thoroughly preserved. One of the natural villages of Mangjing, Wengji, was in the process of recovering Bulang villagers’ traditional houses. As part of the process, villagers in Wengji had been asked to phase out all the modern-looking exterior features of their houses, and villagers could only renovate or modernize the interior of their houses.

Tea Production, Land Use Politics, and Ethnic Minorities, 2015

It was April 10, 2011, a typical, busy day in the village of Mangjing, where many of the villager... more It was April 10, 2011, a typical, busy day in the village of Mangjing, where many of the villagers climbed up the ancient tea trees and harvested spring tea leaves in the tea forest. Baoni, a young Bulang villager in his early 20s, worked with his wife in the tea forest. They were busy harvesting tea leaves from the ancient tree branches. While harvesting the tea leaves, Baoni received a phone call to inform him that the rotary fixing machine1 and the rolling machine2 were about to ship to his house. “Machines are here; I’m going home first,” Baoni yelled to his wife who was on the other tree away from him. He jumped off the tea tree and left his tea leaf collecting bag on the ground. “Drink some water,” Baoni’s wife yelled back. “No time already!” Baoni replied; he seemed desperate to get home to see his machines.

Tea Production, Land Use Politics, and Ethnic Minorities, 2015

Along the route to Lincai’s factory, most of the tea plantations were still terrace tea. These ty... more Along the route to Lincai’s factory, most of the tea plantations were still terrace tea. These types of plantations were also much more commonly seen in Yunnan and other tea-production areas in China. Lincai pointed to the landscape of terrace tea alongside the road that meandered in the tea mountain and told me that many of the terrace tea gardens were originally the ancient tea forest. Tea planters clear-cut the ancient tea forest and changed it into terrace tea gardens. Lincai recalled that he was so excited to see so many ancient tea trees alive when he visited Jingmai Mountain for the first time in 2003. However, he was also appalled by the local villagers’ reckless removal of the trees. Before 2003, Lincai said, the ancient tree tea of Jingmai Mountain was valued much less than was terrace tea in the market. According to Lincai, local people, including local officials, in the villages of Jingmai and Mangjing1 didn’t realize the value of ancient tea trees before he started his tea factory to produce the ancient tree tea. Nowadays the name “Jingmai,” Lincai claimed with self-confidence, referred to not only a place but also a brand renowned as one of the best ancient tree teas in the market.

Tea Production, Land Use Politics, and Ethnic Minorities, 2015

On a busy day in early April 2011, the busiest season of the year in Mangjing for harvesting and ... more On a busy day in early April 2011, the busiest season of the year in Mangjing for harvesting and producing “spring tea”1 (chuncha), Jinger received an early morning phone call from his friend. On the phone, they speculated on the day’s selling price for fresh tea leaves. Three types of leaves were discussed2 (the ancient tea leaves, the terrace tea leaves, and the ecological tea leaves). Jinger and his friend agreed that the price of ancient tea leaves would clearly continue to rise. But they estimated different prices for terrace and ecological tea leaves. Jinger thought the price of ecological tea leaves would decline because one of the main tea factories had temporarily stopped collecting them. He also tried to convince his friend that the price of the terrace tea leaves could increase a little bit due to the higher demand from buyers, particularly the buyers from Guangdong Province.

Area, 2014

ABSTRACT In this paper, I argue that frontiers are dilemmas composed of multiple dualities, be th... more ABSTRACT In this paper, I argue that frontiers are dilemmas composed of multiple dualities, be they exclusive and inclusive powers, connected space and national periphery, or modernity and primitiveness. These dilemmas, in consequence, become the mechanism to create a leeway for the state to ‘tailor’ different meanings of frontier to meet the contingent market demands. I use tea production on China's southwest frontier as an example to demonstrate that dilemma is not an end result, but a mechanism to rearticulate the relationship among frontier, the state and the market economy. Specifically, I argue that dilemmas on China's southwest frontier have been forged by the Chinese state with its incompatible desires between ‘modernisation’ and ‘primitiveness’ of the tea landscapes in Yunnan, a province on China's southwest frontier. Meanwhile, the incompatible desires and the resulting dilemmas on China's southwest frontier have further mobilised the state to flexibly rework its power to reconstruct the frontier to meet contingent market demand. Based on the shifting meanings of tea landscapes, the state has flexibly ‘shuttled through’ the dilemmas between development of modernisation and preservation of primitiveness on the frontier.

The Geographical Journal, 2019