Kara Morgan-Short | University of Illinois at Chicago (original) (raw)
Papers by Kara Morgan-Short
Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 2016
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 2019
Statistical learning (SL) involving sensitivity to distributional regularities in the environment... more Statistical learning (SL) involving sensitivity to distributional regularities in the environment has been suggested to be an important factor in many aspects of cognition, including language. However, the degree to which statistically-learned information is retained over time is not well understood. To establish whether or not learners are able to preserve such regularities over time, we examined performance on an artificial second language learning task both immediately after training and also at a follow-up session 2 weeks later. Participants were exposed to an artificial language (Brocanto2), half of them receiving simplified training items in which only 20% of sequences contained complex structures, whereas the other half were exposed to a training set in which 80% of the items were composed of complex sequences. Overall, participants showed signs of learning at the first session and retention at the second, but the degree of learning was affected by the nature of the training they received. Participants exposed to the simplified input outperformed those in the more complex training condition. A GLMM was used to model the relationship between stimulus properties and participants' endorsement strategies across both sessions. The results indicate that participants in the complex training condition relied more on an item's chunk strength than those in the simple training condition. Taken together, this set of findings shows that statistically learned regularities are retained over the course of 2 weeks. The results also demonstrate that training on input featuring simple items leads to improved learning and retention of grammatical regularities.
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition , 2020
Artificial linguistic systems can offer researchers test tube-like models of second language (L2)... more Artificial linguistic systems can offer researchers test tube-like models of second language (L2) acquisition through which specific questions can be examined under tightly controlled conditions. This paper examines what research with artificial linguistic systems has revealed about the neural mechanisms involved in L2 grammar learning. It first considers the validity of meaningful and non-meaningful artificial linguistic systems. Then it contextualizes and synthesizes neural artificial linguistic system research related to questions about age of exposure to the L2, type of exposure, and online L2 learning mechanisms. Overall, using artificial linguistic systems seems to be an effective and productive way of developing knowledge about L2 neural processes and correlates. With further validation, artificial linguistic system paradigms may prove an important tool more generally in understanding how individuals learn new linguistic systems as they become bilingual.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2018
The role of attention has been central to theoretical and empirical inquiries in second language ... more The role of attention has been central to theoretical and empirical inquiries in second language (L2) acquisition. The current eye-tracking study examined how external and internal attentional manipulations (Chun, Golomb, &Turk-Browne, 2011) promote L2 grammatical development. Participants (n 5 55) were exposed to Spanish direct-object pronouns under external or internal attentional manipulations, which were implemented through textual input enhancement or structured input practice, respectively. Results for both manipulations indicated that (a) learner attentional allocation to the form was affected; (b) L2 gains were evidenced, although only the internal manipulation led to above-chance performance; and (c) L2 gains were related to attention allocated to the form under the external manipulation and to a lesser extent the internal manipulation. Overall, findings may inform theoretical perspectives on attention and elucidate cognitive processes related to L2 instruction.
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2019
Extending previous research that has examined the relationship between long-term memory and secon... more Extending previous research that has examined the relationship between long-term memory and second language (L2) development with a primary focus on accuracy in L2 outcomes, the current study explores the relationship between declarative and procedural memory and accuracy and automatization during L2 practice. Adult English native speakers had learned an artificial language over two weeks (Morgan-Short, Faretta-Stutenberg, Brill-Schuetz, Carpenter & Wong, 2014), producing four sessions of practice data that had not been analyzed previously. Mixed-effects models analyses revealed that declarative memory was positively related to accuracy during comprehension practice. No other relationships were evidenced for accuracy. For automatization, measured by the coefficient of variation (Segalowitz, 2010), the model revealed a positive relationship with procedural memory that became stronger over practice for learners with higher declarative memory but weaker for learners with lower declarative memory. These results provide further insight into the role that long-term memory plays during L2 development.
Language Learning, 2018
The past few years have seen growing interest in open science practices, which include initiative... more The past few years have seen growing interest in open science practices, which include initiatives to increase transparency in research methods, data collection, and analysis; enhance accessibility to data and materials; and improve the dissemination of findings to broader audiences. Language Learning is enhancing its participation in the open science movement by launching Registered Reports as an article category as of January 1, 2018. Registered Reports allow authors to submit the conceptual justifications and the full method and analysis protocol of their study to peer review prior to data collection. High‐quality submissions then receive provisional, in‐principle acceptance. Provided that data collection, analyses, and reporting follow the proposed and accepted methodology and analysis protocols, the article is subsequently publishable whatever the findings. We outline key concerns leading to the development of Registered Reports, describe its core features, and discuss some of its benefits and weaknesses.
Language Learning, 2018
Despite its critical role for the development of the field, little is known about replica-tion in... more Despite its critical role for the development of the field, little is known about replica-tion in second language (L2) research. To better understand replication practice, wefirst provide a narrative review of challenges related to replication, drawing on recentdevelopments in psychology. This discussion frames and motivates a systematic review,building on syntheses of replication in psychology, education, and L2 research. We coded67 self-labeled L2 replication studies found across 26 journals for 136 characteristics.We estimated a mean rate of 1 published replication study for every 400 articles, with amean of 6.64 years between initial and replication studies and a mean of 117 citationsof the initial study before a replication was published. Replication studies had an annualmean of 7.3 citations, much higher than averages in linguistics and education. Overlapin authorship between initial and replication studies and the availability of the initialmaterials both increased the likelihood of a replication supporting the initial findings.Our sample contained no direct (exact) replication attempts, and changes made to initialstudies were numerous and wide ranging, which likely obscured, if not undermined, theinterpretability of replication studies. To improve the amount and quality of L2 repli-cation research, we propose 16 recommendations relating to rationale, nomenclature,design, infrastructure, and incentivization for collaboration and publication.
We conducted a multisite replication study with aspects of preregistration in order to explore th... more We conducted a multisite replication study with aspects of preregistration in order to explore the feasibility of such an approach in second language (L2) research. To this end, we addressed open questions in a line of research that has examined whether having learners attend to form while reading or listening to a L2 passage interferes with comprehension. Our results are consistent with findings from the specific paradigm that we replicated in that no effects on comprehension were detected in analyses conducted over all sites. However, further investigation is warranted due to site‐specific effects and methodological limitations. We found all aspects of the multisite registered replication approach to be useful although the registration component itself appeared to be an especially feasible and valuable first step toward increasing the robustness and generalizability of findings in our field.
It has been suggested that bilinguals learn additional languages ‘better’ than monolinguals. Howe... more It has been suggested that bilinguals learn additional languages ‘better’ than monolinguals. However, evidence is sparse, particularly for grammar. We examined behavioral and neural correlates of learning an additional (artificial) language in early Mandarin–English bilinguals, compared to English monolinguals. Following grammar instruction, participants practiced comprehension and production, and judged grammaticality at low and high proficiency while event-related potentials (ERPs) were acquired. Bilinguals and monolinguals did not differ on behavioral measures, but showed distinct ERP patterns. At low proficiency only bilinguals showed a P600, a common ERP correlate of syntactic processing in native speakers of languages. At high proficiency both groups showed P600s, though the monolinguals also evidenced an anterior positivity not typically found in native speakers of languages during syntactic processing. These findings suggest that, even without bilingual/monolingual behavioral differences, bilinguals show ERP patterns for an additional language that are more similar to those of native speakers of languages.
In order to understand variability in second language (L2) acquisition, this study addressed how ... more In order to understand variability in second language (L2) acquisition, this study addressed how individual differences in cognitive abilities may contribute to development for learners in different contexts. Specifically, we report the results of two short-term longitudinal studies aimed at examining the role of cognitive abilities in accounting for changes in L2 behavioral performance and neurocognitive processing for learners in 'at-home' and 'study-abroad' settings. Learners completed cognitive assessments of declarative, procedural, and working memory abilities. Linguistic assessments aimed at determining behavioral sensitivity and online processing of L2 Spanish syntax were administered before and after a semester of study in either a traditional university classroom context (Experiment 1) or a study-abroad context (Experiment 2). At-home learners evidenced behavioral gains, with no detected predictive role for individual differences in cognitive abilities. Study-abroad learners evidenced behavioral gains and processing changes that were partially accounted for by procedural learning ability and working memory. Taken together, these results provide preliminary insight into how individual differences in cognitive abilities may contribute to behavioral and neural processing changes over time among learners in different natural contexts.
Cognitive Science, 2015
Artificial language learning (ALL) experiments have become an important tool in exploring princi... more Artificial language learning (ALL) experiments have become an important tool in exploring
principles of language and language learning. A persistent question in all of this work, however,
is whether ALL engages the linguistic system and whether ALL studies are ecologically valid
assessments of natural language ability. In the present study, we considered these questions by
examining the relationship between performance in an ALL task and second language learning
ability. Participants enrolled in a Spanish language class were evaluated using a number of different
measures of Spanish ability and classroom performance, which was compared to IQ and a
number of different measures of ALL performance. The results show that success in ALL
experiments, particularly more complex artificial languages, correlates positively with indices of
L2 learning even after controlling for IQ. These findings provide a key link between studies
involving ALL and our understanding of second language learning in the classroom.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2015
The current study aims to make an initial neuroimaging contribution to central implicit-explicit... more The current study aims to make an initial neuroimaging contribution
to central implicit-explicit issues in second language (L2) acquisition
by considering how implicit and explicit contexts mediate the
neural representation of L2. Focusing on implicit contexts, the
study employs a longitudinal design to examine the neural representation
of L2 syntax and also considers how the neural circuits
underlying L2 syntax vary among learners who exhibit different
levels of performance on linguistic and cognitive tasks. Results
suggest that when exposed to a L2 under an implicit context,
some learners are able to quickly rely on neural circuits associated
with fi rst language grammar and procedural memory, whereas other learners increasingly use extralinguistic neural circuits related to control mechanisms to process syntax. Thus, there may be multiple ways in which L2 is represented neurally, at least when learned under implicit contexts.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 2014
The present article provides a review of results from electrophysiological studies of the neuroc... more The present article provides a review of results from electrophysiological studies
of the neurocognition of second language. After a brief introduction to eventrelated
potentials (ERPs), the article explores four sets of findings from recent
second language (L2) ERP research. First, longitudinal L2 ERP research
has demonstrated that L2 neurocognitive processing changes qualitatively with
time. Second, research has shown that L2 learners can evidence nativelike ERP
effects for L2 grammatical features that are present in their first language (L1) as
well as for features that are unique to their L2 but may have more difficulty processing
features that are present in their L1 but that are instantiated differently
in their L2. Third, emerging research has revealed that individual differences in
ERPs can be accounted for by linguistic and nonlinguistic factors. Finally, recent
empirical studies have shown that explicit and implicit training contexts can
lead to nativelike ERP effects at high levels of proficiency, but that implicit contexts
may lead to the development of a fuller nativelike processing signature, at
least for syntactic processing.With continued interdisciplinary approaches and sophisticated research designs, L2 ERP research is only beginning to reach its potential and promises to uniquely inform central questions of second language acquisition.
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2013
Cortex, 2012
Dopamine a b s t r a c t Fundamental advances in neuroscience have come from investigations into ... more Dopamine a b s t r a c t Fundamental advances in neuroscience have come from investigations into neuroplasticity and learning. These investigations often focus on identifying universal principles across different individuals of the same species. Increasingly, individual differences in learning success have also been observed, such that any seemingly universal principle might only be applicable to a certain extent within a particular learner. One potential source of this variation is individuals' genetic differences. Adult language learning provides a unique opportunity for understanding individual differences and genetic bases of neuroplasticity because of the large individual differences in learning success that have already been documented, and because of the body of empirical work connecting language learning and neurocognition. In this article, we review the literature on the genetic bases of neurocognition, especially studies examining polymorphisms of dopamine (DA)-related genes and procedural learning. This review leads us to hypothesize that there may be an association between DA-related genetic variation and language learning differences. If this hypothesis is supported by future empirical findings we suggest that it may point to neurogenetic markers that allow for language learning to be personalized. ª
■ It is widely believed that adults cannot learn a foreign language in the same way that children... more ■ It is widely believed that adults cannot learn a foreign language in the same way that children learn a first language. However, recent evidence suggests that adult learners of a foreign language can come to rely on native-like language brain mechanisms. Here, we show that the type of language training crucially impacts this outcome. We used an artificial language paradigm to examine longitudinally whether explicit training (that approximates traditional grammar-focused classroom settings) and implicit training (that approximates immersion settings) differentially affect neural (electrophysiological) and behavioral (performance) measures of syntactic processing. Results showed that performance of explicitly and implicitly trained groups did not differ at either low or high proficiency. In contrast, electrophysiological (ERP) measures revealed striking differences between the groupsʼ neural activity at both proficiency levels in response to syntactic violations. Implicit training yielded an N400 at low proficiency, whereas at high proficiency, it elicited a pattern typical of native speakers: an anterior negativity followed by a P600 accompanied by a late anterior negativity. Explicit training, by contrast, yielded no significant effects at low proficiency and only an anterior positivity followed by a P600 at high proficiency. Although the P600 is reminiscent of native-like processing, this response pattern as a whole is not. Thus, only implicit training led to an electrophysiological signature typical of native speakers. Overall, the results suggest that adult foreign language learners can come to rely on nativelike language brain mechanisms, but that the conditions under which the language is learned may be crucial in attaining this goal. ■
Although learning a second language (L2) as an adult is notoriously difficult, research has shown... more Although learning a second language (L2) as an adult is notoriously difficult, research has shown that adults can indeed attain native language-like brain processing and high proficiency levels. However, it is important to then retain what has been attained, even in the absence of continued exposure to the L2-particularly since periods of minimal or no L2 exposure are common. This event-related potential (ERP) study of an artificial language tested performance and neural processing following a substantial period of no exposure. Adults learned to speak and comprehend the artificial language to high proficiency with either explicit, classroom-like, or implicit, immersion-like training, and then underwent several months of no exposure to the language. Surprisingly, proficiency did not decrease during this delay. Instead, it remained unchanged, and there was an increase in native-like neural processing of syntax, as evidenced by several ERP changesincluding earlier, more reliable, and more left-lateralized anterior negativities, and more robust P600s, in response to wordorder violations. Moreover, both the explicitly and implicitly trained groups showed increased native-like ERP patterns over the delay, indicating that such changes can hold independently of L2 training type. The results demonstrate that substantial periods with no L2 exposure are not necessarily detrimental. Rather, benefits may ensue from such periods of time even when there is no L2 exposure. Interestingly, both before and after the delay the implicitly trained group showed more native-like processing than the explicitly trained group, indicating that type of training also affects the attainment of nativelike processing in the brain. Overall, the findings may be largely explained by a combination of forgetting and consolidation in declarative and procedural memory, on which L2 grammar learning appears to depend. The study has a range of implications, and suggests a research program with potentially important consequences for second language acquisition and related fields.
Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 2016
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 2019
Statistical learning (SL) involving sensitivity to distributional regularities in the environment... more Statistical learning (SL) involving sensitivity to distributional regularities in the environment has been suggested to be an important factor in many aspects of cognition, including language. However, the degree to which statistically-learned information is retained over time is not well understood. To establish whether or not learners are able to preserve such regularities over time, we examined performance on an artificial second language learning task both immediately after training and also at a follow-up session 2 weeks later. Participants were exposed to an artificial language (Brocanto2), half of them receiving simplified training items in which only 20% of sequences contained complex structures, whereas the other half were exposed to a training set in which 80% of the items were composed of complex sequences. Overall, participants showed signs of learning at the first session and retention at the second, but the degree of learning was affected by the nature of the training they received. Participants exposed to the simplified input outperformed those in the more complex training condition. A GLMM was used to model the relationship between stimulus properties and participants' endorsement strategies across both sessions. The results indicate that participants in the complex training condition relied more on an item's chunk strength than those in the simple training condition. Taken together, this set of findings shows that statistically learned regularities are retained over the course of 2 weeks. The results also demonstrate that training on input featuring simple items leads to improved learning and retention of grammatical regularities.
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition , 2020
Artificial linguistic systems can offer researchers test tube-like models of second language (L2)... more Artificial linguistic systems can offer researchers test tube-like models of second language (L2) acquisition through which specific questions can be examined under tightly controlled conditions. This paper examines what research with artificial linguistic systems has revealed about the neural mechanisms involved in L2 grammar learning. It first considers the validity of meaningful and non-meaningful artificial linguistic systems. Then it contextualizes and synthesizes neural artificial linguistic system research related to questions about age of exposure to the L2, type of exposure, and online L2 learning mechanisms. Overall, using artificial linguistic systems seems to be an effective and productive way of developing knowledge about L2 neural processes and correlates. With further validation, artificial linguistic system paradigms may prove an important tool more generally in understanding how individuals learn new linguistic systems as they become bilingual.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2018
The role of attention has been central to theoretical and empirical inquiries in second language ... more The role of attention has been central to theoretical and empirical inquiries in second language (L2) acquisition. The current eye-tracking study examined how external and internal attentional manipulations (Chun, Golomb, &Turk-Browne, 2011) promote L2 grammatical development. Participants (n 5 55) were exposed to Spanish direct-object pronouns under external or internal attentional manipulations, which were implemented through textual input enhancement or structured input practice, respectively. Results for both manipulations indicated that (a) learner attentional allocation to the form was affected; (b) L2 gains were evidenced, although only the internal manipulation led to above-chance performance; and (c) L2 gains were related to attention allocated to the form under the external manipulation and to a lesser extent the internal manipulation. Overall, findings may inform theoretical perspectives on attention and elucidate cognitive processes related to L2 instruction.
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2019
Extending previous research that has examined the relationship between long-term memory and secon... more Extending previous research that has examined the relationship between long-term memory and second language (L2) development with a primary focus on accuracy in L2 outcomes, the current study explores the relationship between declarative and procedural memory and accuracy and automatization during L2 practice. Adult English native speakers had learned an artificial language over two weeks (Morgan-Short, Faretta-Stutenberg, Brill-Schuetz, Carpenter & Wong, 2014), producing four sessions of practice data that had not been analyzed previously. Mixed-effects models analyses revealed that declarative memory was positively related to accuracy during comprehension practice. No other relationships were evidenced for accuracy. For automatization, measured by the coefficient of variation (Segalowitz, 2010), the model revealed a positive relationship with procedural memory that became stronger over practice for learners with higher declarative memory but weaker for learners with lower declarative memory. These results provide further insight into the role that long-term memory plays during L2 development.
Language Learning, 2018
The past few years have seen growing interest in open science practices, which include initiative... more The past few years have seen growing interest in open science practices, which include initiatives to increase transparency in research methods, data collection, and analysis; enhance accessibility to data and materials; and improve the dissemination of findings to broader audiences. Language Learning is enhancing its participation in the open science movement by launching Registered Reports as an article category as of January 1, 2018. Registered Reports allow authors to submit the conceptual justifications and the full method and analysis protocol of their study to peer review prior to data collection. High‐quality submissions then receive provisional, in‐principle acceptance. Provided that data collection, analyses, and reporting follow the proposed and accepted methodology and analysis protocols, the article is subsequently publishable whatever the findings. We outline key concerns leading to the development of Registered Reports, describe its core features, and discuss some of its benefits and weaknesses.
Language Learning, 2018
Despite its critical role for the development of the field, little is known about replica-tion in... more Despite its critical role for the development of the field, little is known about replica-tion in second language (L2) research. To better understand replication practice, wefirst provide a narrative review of challenges related to replication, drawing on recentdevelopments in psychology. This discussion frames and motivates a systematic review,building on syntheses of replication in psychology, education, and L2 research. We coded67 self-labeled L2 replication studies found across 26 journals for 136 characteristics.We estimated a mean rate of 1 published replication study for every 400 articles, with amean of 6.64 years between initial and replication studies and a mean of 117 citationsof the initial study before a replication was published. Replication studies had an annualmean of 7.3 citations, much higher than averages in linguistics and education. Overlapin authorship between initial and replication studies and the availability of the initialmaterials both increased the likelihood of a replication supporting the initial findings.Our sample contained no direct (exact) replication attempts, and changes made to initialstudies were numerous and wide ranging, which likely obscured, if not undermined, theinterpretability of replication studies. To improve the amount and quality of L2 repli-cation research, we propose 16 recommendations relating to rationale, nomenclature,design, infrastructure, and incentivization for collaboration and publication.
We conducted a multisite replication study with aspects of preregistration in order to explore th... more We conducted a multisite replication study with aspects of preregistration in order to explore the feasibility of such an approach in second language (L2) research. To this end, we addressed open questions in a line of research that has examined whether having learners attend to form while reading or listening to a L2 passage interferes with comprehension. Our results are consistent with findings from the specific paradigm that we replicated in that no effects on comprehension were detected in analyses conducted over all sites. However, further investigation is warranted due to site‐specific effects and methodological limitations. We found all aspects of the multisite registered replication approach to be useful although the registration component itself appeared to be an especially feasible and valuable first step toward increasing the robustness and generalizability of findings in our field.
It has been suggested that bilinguals learn additional languages ‘better’ than monolinguals. Howe... more It has been suggested that bilinguals learn additional languages ‘better’ than monolinguals. However, evidence is sparse, particularly for grammar. We examined behavioral and neural correlates of learning an additional (artificial) language in early Mandarin–English bilinguals, compared to English monolinguals. Following grammar instruction, participants practiced comprehension and production, and judged grammaticality at low and high proficiency while event-related potentials (ERPs) were acquired. Bilinguals and monolinguals did not differ on behavioral measures, but showed distinct ERP patterns. At low proficiency only bilinguals showed a P600, a common ERP correlate of syntactic processing in native speakers of languages. At high proficiency both groups showed P600s, though the monolinguals also evidenced an anterior positivity not typically found in native speakers of languages during syntactic processing. These findings suggest that, even without bilingual/monolingual behavioral differences, bilinguals show ERP patterns for an additional language that are more similar to those of native speakers of languages.
In order to understand variability in second language (L2) acquisition, this study addressed how ... more In order to understand variability in second language (L2) acquisition, this study addressed how individual differences in cognitive abilities may contribute to development for learners in different contexts. Specifically, we report the results of two short-term longitudinal studies aimed at examining the role of cognitive abilities in accounting for changes in L2 behavioral performance and neurocognitive processing for learners in 'at-home' and 'study-abroad' settings. Learners completed cognitive assessments of declarative, procedural, and working memory abilities. Linguistic assessments aimed at determining behavioral sensitivity and online processing of L2 Spanish syntax were administered before and after a semester of study in either a traditional university classroom context (Experiment 1) or a study-abroad context (Experiment 2). At-home learners evidenced behavioral gains, with no detected predictive role for individual differences in cognitive abilities. Study-abroad learners evidenced behavioral gains and processing changes that were partially accounted for by procedural learning ability and working memory. Taken together, these results provide preliminary insight into how individual differences in cognitive abilities may contribute to behavioral and neural processing changes over time among learners in different natural contexts.
Cognitive Science, 2015
Artificial language learning (ALL) experiments have become an important tool in exploring princi... more Artificial language learning (ALL) experiments have become an important tool in exploring
principles of language and language learning. A persistent question in all of this work, however,
is whether ALL engages the linguistic system and whether ALL studies are ecologically valid
assessments of natural language ability. In the present study, we considered these questions by
examining the relationship between performance in an ALL task and second language learning
ability. Participants enrolled in a Spanish language class were evaluated using a number of different
measures of Spanish ability and classroom performance, which was compared to IQ and a
number of different measures of ALL performance. The results show that success in ALL
experiments, particularly more complex artificial languages, correlates positively with indices of
L2 learning even after controlling for IQ. These findings provide a key link between studies
involving ALL and our understanding of second language learning in the classroom.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2015
The current study aims to make an initial neuroimaging contribution to central implicit-explicit... more The current study aims to make an initial neuroimaging contribution
to central implicit-explicit issues in second language (L2) acquisition
by considering how implicit and explicit contexts mediate the
neural representation of L2. Focusing on implicit contexts, the
study employs a longitudinal design to examine the neural representation
of L2 syntax and also considers how the neural circuits
underlying L2 syntax vary among learners who exhibit different
levels of performance on linguistic and cognitive tasks. Results
suggest that when exposed to a L2 under an implicit context,
some learners are able to quickly rely on neural circuits associated
with fi rst language grammar and procedural memory, whereas other learners increasingly use extralinguistic neural circuits related to control mechanisms to process syntax. Thus, there may be multiple ways in which L2 is represented neurally, at least when learned under implicit contexts.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 2014
The present article provides a review of results from electrophysiological studies of the neuroc... more The present article provides a review of results from electrophysiological studies
of the neurocognition of second language. After a brief introduction to eventrelated
potentials (ERPs), the article explores four sets of findings from recent
second language (L2) ERP research. First, longitudinal L2 ERP research
has demonstrated that L2 neurocognitive processing changes qualitatively with
time. Second, research has shown that L2 learners can evidence nativelike ERP
effects for L2 grammatical features that are present in their first language (L1) as
well as for features that are unique to their L2 but may have more difficulty processing
features that are present in their L1 but that are instantiated differently
in their L2. Third, emerging research has revealed that individual differences in
ERPs can be accounted for by linguistic and nonlinguistic factors. Finally, recent
empirical studies have shown that explicit and implicit training contexts can
lead to nativelike ERP effects at high levels of proficiency, but that implicit contexts
may lead to the development of a fuller nativelike processing signature, at
least for syntactic processing.With continued interdisciplinary approaches and sophisticated research designs, L2 ERP research is only beginning to reach its potential and promises to uniquely inform central questions of second language acquisition.
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2013
Cortex, 2012
Dopamine a b s t r a c t Fundamental advances in neuroscience have come from investigations into ... more Dopamine a b s t r a c t Fundamental advances in neuroscience have come from investigations into neuroplasticity and learning. These investigations often focus on identifying universal principles across different individuals of the same species. Increasingly, individual differences in learning success have also been observed, such that any seemingly universal principle might only be applicable to a certain extent within a particular learner. One potential source of this variation is individuals' genetic differences. Adult language learning provides a unique opportunity for understanding individual differences and genetic bases of neuroplasticity because of the large individual differences in learning success that have already been documented, and because of the body of empirical work connecting language learning and neurocognition. In this article, we review the literature on the genetic bases of neurocognition, especially studies examining polymorphisms of dopamine (DA)-related genes and procedural learning. This review leads us to hypothesize that there may be an association between DA-related genetic variation and language learning differences. If this hypothesis is supported by future empirical findings we suggest that it may point to neurogenetic markers that allow for language learning to be personalized. ª
■ It is widely believed that adults cannot learn a foreign language in the same way that children... more ■ It is widely believed that adults cannot learn a foreign language in the same way that children learn a first language. However, recent evidence suggests that adult learners of a foreign language can come to rely on native-like language brain mechanisms. Here, we show that the type of language training crucially impacts this outcome. We used an artificial language paradigm to examine longitudinally whether explicit training (that approximates traditional grammar-focused classroom settings) and implicit training (that approximates immersion settings) differentially affect neural (electrophysiological) and behavioral (performance) measures of syntactic processing. Results showed that performance of explicitly and implicitly trained groups did not differ at either low or high proficiency. In contrast, electrophysiological (ERP) measures revealed striking differences between the groupsʼ neural activity at both proficiency levels in response to syntactic violations. Implicit training yielded an N400 at low proficiency, whereas at high proficiency, it elicited a pattern typical of native speakers: an anterior negativity followed by a P600 accompanied by a late anterior negativity. Explicit training, by contrast, yielded no significant effects at low proficiency and only an anterior positivity followed by a P600 at high proficiency. Although the P600 is reminiscent of native-like processing, this response pattern as a whole is not. Thus, only implicit training led to an electrophysiological signature typical of native speakers. Overall, the results suggest that adult foreign language learners can come to rely on nativelike language brain mechanisms, but that the conditions under which the language is learned may be crucial in attaining this goal. ■
Although learning a second language (L2) as an adult is notoriously difficult, research has shown... more Although learning a second language (L2) as an adult is notoriously difficult, research has shown that adults can indeed attain native language-like brain processing and high proficiency levels. However, it is important to then retain what has been attained, even in the absence of continued exposure to the L2-particularly since periods of minimal or no L2 exposure are common. This event-related potential (ERP) study of an artificial language tested performance and neural processing following a substantial period of no exposure. Adults learned to speak and comprehend the artificial language to high proficiency with either explicit, classroom-like, or implicit, immersion-like training, and then underwent several months of no exposure to the language. Surprisingly, proficiency did not decrease during this delay. Instead, it remained unchanged, and there was an increase in native-like neural processing of syntax, as evidenced by several ERP changesincluding earlier, more reliable, and more left-lateralized anterior negativities, and more robust P600s, in response to wordorder violations. Moreover, both the explicitly and implicitly trained groups showed increased native-like ERP patterns over the delay, indicating that such changes can hold independently of L2 training type. The results demonstrate that substantial periods with no L2 exposure are not necessarily detrimental. Rather, benefits may ensue from such periods of time even when there is no L2 exposure. Interestingly, both before and after the delay the implicitly trained group showed more native-like processing than the explicitly trained group, indicating that type of training also affects the attainment of nativelike processing in the brain. Overall, the findings may be largely explained by a combination of forgetting and consolidation in declarative and procedural memory, on which L2 grammar learning appears to depend. The study has a range of implications, and suggests a research program with potentially important consequences for second language acquisition and related fields.
In C. Sanz & A. Morales Font (Eds.), Handbook of Study Abroad Research (pp. 421-435). London: Routledge.
In Z. Wen, P. Skehan, A. Biedrón, S. Li, & R. Sparks (Eds.), Advancing aptitude: Advancing theory, testing, research and practice (pp. 215-237). New York: Routledge.
In L. Lopez (Ed.), Code-switching – Experimental Answers to Theoretical Questions: In honor of Kay González-Vilbazo
In P. Rebuschat (Ed.), Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins., 2015
In J. Jegerski & B. VanPatten (Eds.) Research Methods for Second Language Psycholinguistics (pp. 127-152). New York: Routledge.
2
In S. M. Gass & A. Mackey (Eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 282-299). New York: Routledge.
In C. Sanz (Ed.), Mind and Context in Adult Second Language Acquisition: Methods, Theory, and Practice. Georgetown University Press.
Selected Proceedings of the 2017 Second Language Research Forum, 2019
Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, 40, 2018
Research has examined the role of domain-general cognitive factors in second language (L2) acquis... more Research has examined the role of domain-general cognitive factors in second language (L2) acquisition, with emerging evidence implicating a role for procedural memory, a long-term memory system (e.g., Morgan-Short et al., 2014). Strong conclusions regarding the role of procedural memory are hindered by the lack of knowledge regarding the reliability and validity of procedural memory assessments. In this study, participants completed three assessments of procedural memory that have previously been used to study L2 learning, along with assessments of declarative memory, working memory, and an artificial L2 learning task. Results indicated that the procedural memory assessments generally showed evidence of reliability and discriminant validity, but, somewhat surprisingly, evidence for convergent validity was lacking. Finally, one procedural memory assessment showed predictive validity for the L2 learning task. Implications for future research on the role of procedural memory in L2 acquisition will be considered in light of these results.
EUROSLA Yearbook: Volume 15, 2015
This study aimed to assess whether attentional allocation to direct object pronouns in L2 Spanish... more This study aimed to assess whether attentional allocation to direct object pronouns in L2 Spanish was influenced by external or internal manipulations of attention and whether these manipulations caused learning of the form. Attention was measured by fixation duration and skipping rate on the pronouns, and learning was measured with a sentence interpretation task. Results provided empirical evidence that both types of manipulations direct attention to target forms, but in different ways, and bring about learning. In addition to examining the role of attention, the present study examined how different types of motivation, (i.e., integrative, intrinsic and extrinsic) were related to both attentional allocation and learning and found that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were related to different attentional manipulations. Results are informative for models of L2 acquisition that posit a role for attention, instructed L2 acquisition and L2 motivation research.
Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society , 2014
This study examined the role of procedural memory in adult second language (L2) development. Part... more This study examined the role of procedural memory in adult second language (L2) development. Participants were trained on an artificial language under either explicit or implicit conditions. Development in the L2 was assessed by grammar tests at two time points. Measures of procedural memory were administered and were used to create high and low procedural groups. Results revealed an advantage in L2 development for learners with high procedural memory when trained in the implicit condition. Overall, this study suggests that procedural memory may be an important factor in adult L2 development but its role may differ under different learning contexts.
Selected Proceedings of the 2011 Second Language Research Forum: , 2011
This study examines several related issues concerning second language acquisition and processing:... more This study examines several related issues concerning second language acquisition and processing: what computational and neural systems underlie second language acquisition and processing at both low and high proficiency levels; whether later learners can achieve native-like proficiency; and how conditions to which second language (L2) learners are exposed (e.g., explicit and implicit conditions) affect these issues. Informed by the fields of cognitive neuroscience and second language acquisition (SLA), this study investigated the neurocognitive underpinnings of adult acquisition and use of L2 by using an artificial language paradigm, following Friederici, Steinhauer and Pfeifer (2002). Adult subjects learned an artificial language to advanced levels of proficiency under two training conditions: explicit and implicit. Syntactic and morphosyntactic processing were assessed within-subjects and across training conditions with both behavioral and neurocognitive measures, specifically iv event-related potentials (ERPs), at low and high proficiency levels. Behavioral results indicated that participants from both groups performed similarly at low and higher levels proficiency, although the explicit training condition led to some advantage for one morphosyntactic form. These results are largely consistent with the findings of Sanz and . ERP results showed that the implicit condition led to an N400 component for syntactic and morphosyntactic structures at low proficiency and to a LAN-P600 biphasic response for these structures at higher levels of proficiency whereas the explicit condition did not lead to the predicted components. Interestingly, the biphasic response evidenced by the implicit group is consistent with the typical response evidenced in L1 to these structures. The neurocognitive processing underlying performance of the implicit group is consistent with the results from Friederici, as well as with the predictions of the declarative/procedural model (2001a; 2001b; 2004; 2005). Overall, the explicit and implicit conditions did not differentially affect L2 knowledge as reflected by behavioral assessments but they did appear to affect the cognitive processing that underlies use of the L2 knowledge. Future research that fully considers and incorporates theory and research methodology from SLA and cognitive neuroscience is likely to provide insights into L2A and have significant implications for our understanding of L2A.