Occupational exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools (original) (raw)
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The Science of The Total Environment, 1998
. In this article, exposure to trihalomethanes THMs in indoor swimming pools as a consequence of water chlorination is reported. Environmental and biological monitoring of THMs was performed in order to assess the uptake of these substances after a defined period in five competitive swimmers, regularly attending an indoor swimming pool to train for competition during four sampling sessions. Analyses were performed by gas-chromatogra-Ž . Ž . phy and the following THMs were detected: chloroform CHCl , bromodichloromethane CHBrCl , dibro-3 2 . CHBr Cl . After 1 h swimming, the THM uptake is approx. seven times higher than at rest: a THM mean uptake of 2 Ž . 221 grh 177 grh, 26 grh and 18 grh for CHCl , CHBrCl and CHBr Cl, respectively was evaluated at an 3 2 2 environmental concentration of approx. 200 grm 3 . ᮊ 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal, 1995
ABSTRAa. The influence of working or swimming in indoor swimming pools on the concentrations of four trihalomethanes (haloforms) in blood and urine was investigated. Different groups (bath attendants, agonistic swimmers, normal swimmers, sampling person) were compared. The proportions of trihalomethanes in blood and urine correlated roughly with those in water and ambient air. Higher levels of physical activity were correlated with higher concentrations. Within one night after exposure in the poollhe blood concentrations usually were reduced to the pre-exposure values. Secretion of trichloromethane in urine was found to be less Ihan 10%.
Water Science and Technology: Water Supply
Certain aspects of the distribution of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in the air of indoor swimming pools, the exposure of the users, and possible health effects have not been well documented. To determine the distribution of trihalomethanes (THM), measurements were performed at 0.05 m, 0.60 m and 1.50 m above the water surface. These heights were chosen to measure the exposure in the breathing zone of the users. Air samples were collected from two indoor swimming pool facilities in Norway. Facility 1 uses calcium hypochlorite and facility 2 uses sodium hypochlorite for water treatment. In facility 2, one of the swimming pools is filled with 33% seawater, while the other pools in this study were filled with freshwater. Higher values were measured at 0.05 m compared to 1.50 m. Negligible differences between the measurements at 0.60 m and 1.50 m above floor levels were obtained. In average, 282% higher concentrations of total THM (tTHM) were measured in facility 2. Different disinfection products and ventilation concepts are possible explanations. Swimmers are exposed to higher concentrations compared to users by the poolside. For future studies, it is crucial to measure as close to the water surface as possible.
Analytica Chimica Acta, 2010
A method for the estimation of the human intake of trihalomethanes (THMs), namely chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform, during showering and bathing is reported. The method is based on the determination of these compounds in exhaled breath that is collected by solid adsorption on Tenax using a device specifically designed for this purpose. Instrumental measurements were performed by automatic thermal desorption coupled to gas chromatography with electron capture detection. THMs in exhaled breath samples were determined during showering and swimming pool attendance. The levels of these compounds in indoor air and water were also determined as reference for interpretation of the exhaled breath results. The THM concentrations in exhaled breath of the volunteers measured before the exposure experiments showed a close correspondence with the THMs levels in indoor air where the sampler was located. Limits of detection in exhaled breath were dependent on THM analytes and experimental sites. They ranged between 170 and 710 ng m −3 in the swimming pool studies and between 97 and 460 ng m −3 in the showering studies. Application of this method to THMs determination during showering and swimming pool activities revealed statistically significant increases in THMs concentrations when comparing exhaled breath before and after exposure.
Environment International, 2012
Water disinfection In-door swimming pools Trihalomethanes Bromoform Exhaled air pollutants Volatile organic compounds This first study of trihalomethanes (THMs) in swimming pools using bromine agents for water disinfection under real conditions shows that the mixtures of these compounds are largely dominated by bromoform in a similar process as chloroform becomes the dominant THM in pools disinfected with chlorine agents. Bromoform largely predominates in air and water of the pool installations whose concentration changes are linearly correlated. However, the air concentrations of bromoform account for about 6-11% of the expected concentrations according to theoretical partitioning defined by the Henry law. Bromoform in exhaled air of swimmers is correlated with the air concentrations of this disinfectant by-product in the pool building. Comparison of the THM exhaled air concentrations between swimmers and volunteers bathing in the water without swimming or standing in the building outside the water suggest that physical activity enhance exposure to these disinfectant by-products. They also indicate that in swimming pools, besides inhalation, dermal absorption is a relevant route for the incorporation of THMs, particularly those with lower degree of bromination.
Influence of physical activity in the intake of trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools
Environmental research, 2015
This study describes the relationship between physical activity and intake of trihalomethanes (THMs), namely chloroform (CHCl3), bromodichloromethane (CHCl2Br), dibromochloromethane (CHClBr2) and bromoform (CHBr3), in individuals exposed in two indoor swimming pools which used different disinfection agents, chlorine (Cl-SP) and bromine (Br-SP). CHCl3 and CHBr3 were the dominant compounds in air and water of the Cl-SP and Br-SP, respectively. Physical exercise was assessed from distance swum and energy expenditure. The changes in exhaled breath concentrations of these compounds were measured from the differences after and before physical activity. A clear dependence between distance swum or energy expenditure and exhaled breath THM concentrations was observed. The statistically significant relationships involved higher THM concentrations at higher distances swum. However, air concentration was the major factor determining the CHCl3 and CHCl2Br intake in swimmers whereas distance swum...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2010
The objective of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the prevalence of self-reported respiratory, ocular and cutaneous symptoms in subjects working at indoor swimming pools and to assess the relationship between frequency of declared symptoms and occupational exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs). Twenty indoor swimming pools in the Emilia Romagna region of Italy were included in the study. Information about the health status of 133 employees was collected using a self-administered questionnaire. Subjects working at swimming pools claimed to frequently experience the following symptoms: cold (65.4%), sneezing (52.6%), red eyes (48.9%) and itchy eyes (44.4%). Only 7.5% claimed to suffer from asthma. Red eyes, runny nose, voice loss and cold symptoms were declared more frequently by pool attendants (lifeguards and trainers) when compared with employees working in other areas of the facility (office, cafe, etc.). Pool attendants experienced generally more verrucas, mycosis, eczema and rash than others workers; however, only the difference in the frequency of self-declared mycosis was statistically significant (p = 0.010). Exposure to DBPs was evaluated using both environmental and biological monitoring. Trihalomethanes (THMs), the main DBPs, were OPEN ACCESS Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2010, 7 1380 evaluated in alveolar air samples collected from subjects. Swimming pool workers experienced different THM exposure levels: lifeguards and trainers showed the highest mean values of THMs in alveolar air samples (28.5 ± 20.2 µg/m 3 ), while subjects working in cafe areas (17.6 ± 12.1 µg/m 3 ), offices (14.4 ± 12.0 µg/m 3 ) and engine rooms (13.6 ± 4.4 µg/m 3 ) showed lower exposure levels. Employees with THM alveolar air values higher than 21 µg/m 3 (median value) experienced higher risks for red eyes (OR 6.2; 95% CI 2.6-14.9), itchy eyes (OR 3.5; 95% CI 1.5-8.0), dyspnea/asthma (OR 5.1; 95% CI 1.0-27.2) and blocked nose (OR 2.2; 95% CI 1.0-4.7) than subjects with less exposure. This study confirms that lifeguards and trainers are more at risk for respiratory and ocular irritative symptoms and cutaneous diseases than subjects with other occupations at swimming pool facilities.
Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 2015
Introduction: Chlorination is a method commonly used to keep indoor swimming pool water free from pathogens. However, chlorination of swimming pools produces several potentially hazardous by-products as the chlorine reacts with nitrogen containing organic matter. Up till now, exposure assessments in indoor swimming pools have relied on stationary measurements at the poolside, used as a proxy for personal exposure. However, measurements at fixed locations are known to differ from personal exposure. Methods: Eight public swimming pool facilities in four Swedish cities were included in this survey. Personal and stationary sampling was performed during day or evening shift. Samplers were placed at different fixed positions around the pool facilities, at ~1.5 m above the floor level and 0-1 m from the poolside. In total, 52 personal and 110 stationary samples of trichloramine and 51 personal and 109 stationary samples of trihalomethanes, were collected. Results: The average concentration of trichloramine for personal sampling was 71 µg m −3 , ranging from 1 to 240 µg m −3 and for stationary samples 179 µg m −3 , ranging from 1 to 640 µg m −3. The air concentrations of chloroform were well below the occupational exposure limit (OEL). For the linear regression analysis and prediction of personal exposure to trichloramine from stationary sampling, only data from personal that spent >50% of their workday in the pool area were included. The linear regression analysis showed a correlation coefficient (r 2) of 0.693 and a significant regression coefficient β of 0.621; (95% CI = 0.329-0.912, P = 0.001). Conclusion: The trichloramine exposure levels determined in this study were well below the recommended air concentration level of 500 µg m −3 ; a WHO reference value based on stationary sampling. Our regression data suggest a relation between personal exposure and area sampling of 1:2, implying an OEL of 250 µg m −3 based on personal sampling.
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health-part A-current Issues, 2012
The main goal of this investigation project was to study the occurrence, distribution and determinants of THMs in indoor swimming pools. In order to achieve this goal the characterization of water quality from 30 Lisbon indoor swimming pools, using chorine based treatment techniques, was performed during a six month period. Because of laboratory working restrictions, chloroform (CF) concentration in pool air was studied only in 6 pools, at the same period. Several parameters such as total trihalomethane concentration (TTHMs), CF, other THMs concentration in water, free residual chlorine (FrCl), combined residual chlorine (CrCl), pH, water and air temperature (T w and T air ), relative humidity (rel_Hum), chemical oxygen demand (COD), conductivity (Cond), turbidity (Turb) and chloride (Cl) were determined in each pool, once a month. The results herein presented refer to the first 3 month of the study, April to June.