Water Resources: Agricultural and Environmental Issues (original) (raw)
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The Effects of Water Deficiencies in Middle East
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Today, water scarcity is an urgent issue expected to impose severe constraints on the Mediterranean region for its development and food security. According to the World Water Assessment Program of the UNESCO (WWAP, 2015), without significant global policy change, the world will only have 60% of the water it needs by 2030. The Mediterranean region is one of the most water-scarce areas in the world. The region holds only 3% of the world's freshwater resources but hosts more than 50% of the world's " water poor " populations, or around 180 million of the region's 460 million inhabitants (Châtel et al., 2014). The entire region has a supply of renewable water resources of about 1,452 km 3 , which is distributed in an extremely inhomogeneous way between the North (74%), the East (21%) and the South (5%) (Ferragina, 2010). However, water scarcity is expected to intensify further in this region that has already been made fragile due to population and economic growths, desertification and the needs for environmental protection. In addition, the rise in temperatures will impose further stress on the Mediterranean's finite water resources as this region is identified as one of the most prominent climate response hot-spots. Water scarcity can involve not only a lack of water but also poor water delivery infrastructure and poor water management. Some consider water scarcity as an absolute shortage of physical supply while others argue that it is generated by poverty, inequality and bad water management policies. Water resource availability in the Mediterranean has already been negatively affected and this is seriously jeopardising food security and the environment. This chapter exposes the different components affecting the variability of water availability and therefore assesses the reasons behind wastages and losses of water and the possible solutions with the aim of ensuring a more sustainable food production
Linking Environmental Water Scarcity and Options for Adaptation in the MENA Region
Journal of Water Resource and Protection
Contamination of surface and underground water by sea level rise, surface runoff, and land use activities such as industrial and agricultural activities can lead to water scarcity. Water could be available and accessible but not suitable for human use. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region countries, the agriculture sector depends massively on water for farming activities, which consumes about 80% of the available water resources. In this context, the issue of environmental water scarcity is under highlighted, though the use of this term itself is still lacking in an international context (FAO). Meanwhile, the international goal of universal access to clean freshwater is included in global development targets (SDGs). This study provides some insights and deepens our understanding on environmental water scarcity, particularly MEN-A region countries. This review paper begins with an introduction to water scarcity and continues with a discussion of environmental issues associated with water scarcity in MENA region countries. Finally, we suggest some adaptive measures in two distinct areas such as agriculture sectors and policy makers and conclude that the lack of implementation of this particular term is hindering sustainable development in MENA region countries.
Evaluation of Water Scarcity in Selected Countries of the Middle East
Water
The primary goal of this article is to evaluate water scarcity in selected countries of the Middle-East and assess the impact on agricultural production. To begin with, the Weighted Anomaly Standardized Precipitation (WASP) Index from 1979 to 2017 was spatially computed for Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. In order to demonstrate the effect of reduced levels of water, the water shortage situation in cities with the population higher than one million was examined. This was accomplished by utilizing the Composite Index approach to make water related statistics more intelligible. A projection for the years of 2020 to 2030 was created in order to demonstrate possible changes in the supply and demand for water in selected countries of the Middle-East. In regards to evaluating the economic effects of water shortages on agricultural sector, effects of lower precipitation on agricultural production in Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia were estimated. With ever-increasing urbanization, all countries a...
Water conservation in the Arab region: a must for survival
Sciences in Cold and Arid Regions, 2013
The Arab region covers an area over 13 million square kilometers in size, with almost 90% of its area classified as arid or extremely arid with very little precipitation, extremely high evaporation and almost no vegetation cover. The region is classified in many international reports as the poorest region in the world in the context of renewable water resources and critical water scarcity which hinders the socioeconomic development of many countries in this region. The rapidly increasing population has reduced the per capita share of renewable water to less than the poverty line of 1,000 m 3 /(capita•a) and, in some Arab countries, to less than the extreme poverty line of 500 m 3 /(capita•a). This has led to over-exploitation of non-renewable groundwater and desalination of salty water in many countries with considerable costs and contamination of many renewable sources. Atmospheric processes responsible for aridity in the Arab region are projected to intensify due to climate change, resulting in an alarming decrease in precipitation and increase in evaporation rates. Many concerned entities in the region consider water security as a key element for food security and ultimately political stability. Hence, various efforts have been exerted to identify key problems and suggested solutions. The Arab Water Ministers Council of the Arab League, as well as Reports of the Arab Forum for the Environment and Development (AFED) and the recommendations of the 13th Regional Meeting of the Arab National Committees of the International Hydrological Programme of UNESCO (IHP), have all made similar recommendations on the need to address the issues of water scarcity in the Arab region which will be further discussed in this paper. However, none of these reports focused on "Water Conservation" as an equally important action for coping with water scarcity in the region. There are many definitions for "Water Conservation" in the scientific literature, including huge water savings from irrigation, industrial use, and domestic use as well as methods and approaches for augmenting water supply through non-conventional practices such as water harvesting and waste water reuse. In this paper, a review is provided for definitions, methods and impacts of water conservation and its role in alleviating water scarcity in the Arab region.
The State of Water Resources and the Need for a Comprehensive Perspective
The Economics of Water Resources
The role of water across sectors and societies and the evolution of its services over time have been reflected in many aspects of human life. Water, as a resource, has been studied by many disciplines. They all agree that water is unevenly distributed over time and in space, giving rise to large gaps between water needs and water availability in certain times and certain locations and stressing the need for proper demand-and-supply management. It is the reduction of the spatial and temporal gaps between supply and demand that water economics plays a crucial role in. This chapter describes the interaction between water resources and society over time in various parts of the world, the effects of climate change on the available water supplies, the technological means available to cope with water scarcity and deteriorated quality, the institutional and legal means experienced by various countries, and the types of decisions needed to implement and manage such means. . Background Water is a natural resource with flow and stock dimensions and with several origins. Most water is natural, resulting from precipitation (rain and snow) that flows in rivers, and is stored in lakes and groundwater aquifers. Some aquifers are replenishable (from precipitation) and some are fossil, being stored a long time ago (thousands of years) in deep aquifers We would like to acknowledge the research assistance of Vincent Ta, allowing us to present the various trends, both inter-temporal and cross-sectional, of the various variables presented in this chapter. We benefited from access to data and maps that were produced upon our request by Dr.
Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water. 97% of water on the Earth is salt water, leaving only 3% as fresh water of which slightly over two thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water is mainly found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing. Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world and as the world population continues to rise, so too does the water demand. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 21st century, more than half the world’s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems. The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights.
Special Issue: Water Management Strategies in Irrigated Areas
Agricultural Water Management, 2016
The 2015 edition of the United Nations World Water Development Report highlighted that 'water is at the core of sustainable development'. Water has upgraded the quality of human life, and any progress to achieve a more sustainable world will deal with the maintenance and/or the improvement of water management. Water demand has grown at more than twice the population rate in the XX century. By 2025, it is estimated that about 1.8 billion people will live in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions. According to the UN water organization, irrigated agriculture is the biggest water user, accounting for 70% of global water withdrawals, followed by industrial and domestic sectors with the 20% and 10%, respectively (www.unwater.org/statistics/statisticsdetail/en/c/246663/). However, these values vary across countries and as an example, irrigation demand extents to more than 90% of water resources in many underdeveloped countries. Thus, irrigation is the key factor for most of the freshwater consumption in the world, and therefore stands in direct competition to other sectors such as households and industries. Likewise, if efficiencies do not improve, water requirement for irrigation will increase about 20% by 2050, partly due to climatic change. The report of Droogers and van de Giesen (2010), highlighted that only 17% of the cultivated lands is irrigated, but it provides 30-40% of the world's food production. Over 60% of the world's irrigated area is located in Asia, most of it for rice production. Likewise, climate changes have prone droughts areas, resulting in a decrease in water availability that amplifies the problems associated to water scarcity in regions like the Mediterranean basin and southern Europe, south and central America, western Asia, as well as the subtropical regions of Africa and Australia. In addition, higher temperatures have increased evapotranspiration and reduced soil water availability. The UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO, 2009), has estimated that the crop production in developing countries should increase by 67% to satisfy the growing demand for food between 2000 and 2030. Trends in food production would have to increase 1-2% per year in the next generation. The increment in food demand is caused by a combination of population growth and changes in consumption patterns, especially due to the rising animal-based protein in our diets (Liu and Savenije, 2008). The overview on water management in agriculture (Molden, 2007) highlighted that food security could be achieved under current and future conditions if appropriate measures are taken.