Bioaccumulation Risk Assessment of Aflatoxin B1, Ochra-Toxin and Fumonisin B1 in Tenebrio Molitor Larvae (original) (raw)
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Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by some species of fungi. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes and ochratoxins are the common mycotoxins in Nigeria. Aflatoxin is the most frequently reported in literatures, with trichothecenes being the least, they cause yield loss to farmers as well as constituting major health risk to humans. The occurrence of mycotoxins in food is a serious problem that Nigeria is facing presently, as it continues to pose threat to feed and food safety of animals and humans. There is the need to seek for approaches that would lead to reduction in their toxicity. The practice of good sanitary measures right from the farm to storage, creation of awareness campaign to indicate the toxic effects associated with mycotoxin poisonings in humans and livestock, and proper evaluation of food crops for its presence can go a long way in achieving the target reduction in incidence of mycotoxins in Nigeria. 1.0 Introduction Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungal origin which produce toxic responses when ingested by animals or humans. The word 'mycotoxin' is a combination of a Greek word, 'mykes' meaning 'fungus' and a Latin word 'toxicum' meaning 'by poison' (Rai et al., 2012). Mycotoxicosis is a term used to denote the diseases that result from the ingestion of mycotoxin by animals and humans (Nierman et al., 2008). The acuteness of a specific mycotoxicosis may vary in different victims. Various factors determine the severity of a mycotoxin; among them are the level of toxicity, dosage, age, nutritional and immunity status of the victim (Peraica et al., 1999). The general attraction to the study of mycotoxins started in 1960 when more than 100,000 turkeys died in London, England after consuming contaminated groundnut meal that was imported from Brazil (Blount, 1961). The disease that resulted was called 'Turkey X' disease. Aspergillus flavus was later isolated from the groundnut meal and the toxic agents named 'aflatoxin' (A. flavus toxin) accordingly (Splensley, 1963; Kensler et al., 2011). The word 'mycotoxin' was then coined in 1962 after the Turkey X incident. Most mycotoxins of concern are produced by three genera of fungi, namely, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium. These are the predominant fungal genera associated with food grains during storage (CAST, 2003). These genera are considered significant because of their ubiquity in the environment and their ability to produce various types of mycotoxins like aflatoxins, fumonisins and ochratoxins (Juan et al., 2010). However, the presence of these fungi does not necessarily imply the presence of toxins. The mycotoxigenic fungi can be classified as either field or storage fungi. It should be noted that a fungus may produce several mycotoxins and a mycotoxin may be produced by different fungi (Fernandez-Cruz et al., 2010). There are intrinsic and extrinsic factors which influence the production of mycotoxins. The intrinsic factors include pH, water activity (a w) and redox potential of the substrate while the extrinsic factors are the relative humidity, temperature and oxygen availability of the environment where the commodities are produced, stored or processed (Whitlow and Hagler, 2004; Nagwa et al., 2013). Over 400 types of mycotoxins have been reported (Bhat et al., 2010), but only four (aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes and ochratoxins) will be discussed in this review. While the other mycotoxins are important for studies, aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes and ochratoxins are of greater interests because of their prevalence in agricultural produce and the harmful effects they exert when they are consumed by animals and humans (Richard, 2007). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that about 25% of the world's agricultural produce is contaminated with mycotoxins which cause huge losses for farmers (Wu, 2007). These losses are measured in reduced crop yields, lower quality, reduced animal performance and reproductive capabilities, and increased disease incidence. The biochemical properties of mycotoxins are diverse, and their toxic effects are exceedingly variable.
Insect as major carrier of aflatoxins and mycotoxin in foods: A review
Journal of entomology and zoology studies, 2024
Stored grains are predominant food all over the world, so the contagious effects on grains cannot be ignored. This study will help to examine the incidence and transmission of mycotoxic fungi in grains through insect pests. Majorly Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier, Lepidoptera, Gelechiidae), Tribolium castaneum (Herbst, Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae), and Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius, Coleoptera, Bostrichidae) are involved. Stored grain insects enormously preferred to contaminate the stored commodities through their feeding preference, their body fragments, and chemical excretion and gave massive contamination to a storage system. Both coleopteran and lepidopteran pests contributed to significant losses in grain commodities. Grains get affected by decreasing their nutritious level and cannot maintain the standard quality of the food according to markets. These pests also involved to cause serious health hazard diseases in terms of producing aflatoxins, mycotoxins fumonisins, and ochratoxin in stored commodities which causes severe chronic diseases. Flour manufacturing areas are at risk and in danger of contamination with mycotoxins. In the atmosphere of storage areas, insects are highly attracted to the odors emitted from deteriorating food such as damaged grains, which is an important clue for host location by insects. Adult populations of stored grain insects collectively move towards the odor of aflatoxin-producing fungi in grains and play a vital role in contaminating them. Therefore, major cereal crops are badly affected due to the occurrence of mycotoxin and aflatoxins-producing fungi and enhancing the durability of stored grain insects. This study concluded possible transmission factors of mycotoxic fungi by stored grain insects which could disturb the salubrious state of human beings and animals through carcinogenic diseases.
Arhiv za higijenu rada i toksikologiju, 2009
Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium species frequently contaminate crops. For this reason mycotoxins such as aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FBs), and zearalenone (ZEA) are found in food and feed in a wide range of concentrations, depending on environmental and storage conditions. Consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed has been associated with acute and chronic poisoning and carcinoma. The aim of this study was to determine the incidence and co-occurrence of AFs (B1+B2+G1+G2), OTA, FBs (B1+B2+B3), and ZEA in 37 samples of cereals and feed randomly collected in 2007 from households of an endemic nephropathy (EN) area in Croatia. The mycotoxins were determined using the competitive direct ELISA test (CD-ELISA) in combination with thin-layer chromatography (TLC). The most frequent mycotoxin was ZEA (92%, mean 318.3 microg kg-1), followed by FBs (27%, 3690 microg kg-1), AFs (24.3%, 4.6 microg kg-1), and OTA (16.2%, 9.8 microg kg-1). Levels of AFs, ZEA, ...
World Mycotoxin Journal, 2017
Insects could provide an alternative and more sustainable source of animal protein compared to conventional livestock. Yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.) can be grown on diets composed of organic by-products. However, these diets could be contaminated with mycotoxins. Thus far, little is known about possible retention, sequestration, excretion or detoxification of mycotoxins by edible insects. T. molitor larvae were grown on wheat flour naturally contaminated with mycotoxins among which deoxynivalenol (DON) was predominant (4.9 mg/kg), wheat flour spiked with 8 mg/kg pure DON, and uncontaminated wheat flour. Larval survival and weight gain on the three diets were compared. Survival was high for larvae on all dietary treatments (>98%) and no difference in weight gain was observed when comparing larvae grown on uncontaminated control diet with larvae grown on contaminated diets (P=0.091). Presence of mycotoxins in larvae and larval faeces was analysed using LC-MS/MS. No DON or ...
Occurrence, Health Risks and Methods of Analysis for Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A
The most frequent toxigenic fungi in the Europe are Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium species. They produce aflatoxin B1 transformed into aflatoxin M1 found in the milk, as well as Ochratoxins and Zearalenone, Fumonisin B1, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin), which are of increasing concern in human health. These mycotoxins are under continuous survey in the Europe, but the regulatory aspects still need to be set up and/or harmonised at the European level. They are found in foodstuffs and are not destroyed by normal industrial processing or cooking since they are heat-stable. Some of their metabolites are still toxic and may be involved in human diseases. Their toxic effects (liver, kidney and haematopoietic toxicity, immune toxicity, foetal toxicity, teratogenicity, and mainly carcinogenicity) are mostly known in experimental models. Chemical assays are of major importance for the determination of mycotoxins. Generally, all chemical methods for the analysis of mycotoxins include the basic steps of extraction, clean-up, separation, detection, quantification and confirmation of identity. The various approaches that exist for the determination of nephrotoxic mycotoxins, and in particular the ochratoxins are discussed below. This paper gives an overview of chromatographic methods used for the determination of aflatoxin and ochratoxin A (OA) in animal and human tissues and fluids. These methods are needed for monitoring studies of OA occurrence in the food chain and for studies dealing with the OA carry-over. The review includes sampling, sample storage, extraction, spiking procedures, clean-up, detection and determination, and confirmation procedures.
Aflatoxin Contamination in Agricultural Commodities
Aflatoxin is a naturally occurring Mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aspergillus flavus is common and widespread in nature and is most often found when certain grains are grown under stressful conditions such as draught. The mold occurs in soil, decaying vegetation, hay and grains undergoing microbiological deterioration and invades all types of organic substrates whenever and wherever the conditions are favourable for its growth. Favourable conditions include high moisture content and high temperature.The aflatoxin group is comprised of aflatoxin B 1 ,B 2 ,G 1 and G 2 . In addition , aflatoxin M 1 (AFM 1 ), a hydroxylated metabolite of AFB 1 , is excreted in the milk of dairy cows consuming an AFB 1 -contaminated ration. Aflatoxin B 1 a prototype of the aflatoxins, is widely recognized as the most potent hepato carcinogenic compound and along with other certain members of the group, possess additional toxic properties including mutagenicity, tetrogenicity, acute cellular toxicity and it suppresses the immune system. Aflatoxin contamination of food and feed has gained global significance as a result of its deleterious effects on human as well as animal health. The marketability of food products is adversely affected by aflatoxin contamination.
Aflatoxin contamination in food crops: causes, detection, and management: a review
Food Production, Processing and Nutrition
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several fungal species and molds. Under favorable conditions like high temperature and moisture, they contaminate a large number of food commodities and regional crops during pre and post-harvesting. Aflatoxin is the main mycotoxin that harm animal and human health due to its carcinogenic nature. Aflatoxins are mainly released by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. AFB1 constitutes the most harmful type of aflatoxins and is a potent hepato-carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and it suppresses the immune system. To maintain food safety and to prevent aflatoxin contamination in food crops, combined approaches of using resistant varieties along with recommended farming practices should be followed. This review concentrates on various aspects of mycotoxin contamination in crops and recent methods to prevent or minimize the contamination.
Analysis of naturally occurring mycotoxins in feedstuffs and food
Journal of animal science, 1993
Aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and their respective metabolites require specific procedures for their determination because of their diverse chemistry and occurrence in complex matrices of feedstuffs and foods. Major sources of error in the analysis of these mycotoxins arise from inadequate sampling and inefficient extraction and cleanup procedures. The determinative step in the assay for each of these toxins is sensitive to levels below those that are considered detrimental to humans and animals. Aflatoxins can be determined in grains and animal fluids and tissues by TLC, HPLC, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and ELISA procedures. Zearalenone, an estrogenic mycotoxin, can readily be determined in cereal grains and foods by HPLC (50 ng/g) and by TLC (300 ng/g). No incurred levels of zearalenone or its metabolites have been detected in animal tissues destined for human consumption. Deoxynivalenol can be determined in wheat and corn at 300 ng/g by a...
Characteristics, Occurrence, Detection and Detoxification of Aflatoxins in Foods and Feeds
Foods
Mycotoxin contamination continues to be a food safety concern globally, with the most toxic being aflatoxins. On-farm aflatoxins, during food transit or storage, directly or indirectly result in the contamination of foods, which affects the liver, immune system and reproduction after infiltration into human beings and animals. There are numerous reports on aflatoxins focusing on achieving appropriate methods for quantification, precise detection and control in order to ensure consumer safety. In 2012, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2 as group 1 carcinogenic substances, which are a global human health concern. Consequently, this review article addresses aflatoxin chemical properties and biosynthetic processes; aflatoxin contamination in foods and feeds; health effects in human beings and animals due to aflatoxin exposure, as well as aflatoxin detection and detoxification methods.