History of Italy | Britannica (original) (raw)

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Assorted References

• major treatment
  • 
    In Italy: Italy in the early Middle Ages
    The Roman Empire was an international political system in which Italy was only a part, though an important part. When the empire fell, a series of barbarian kingdoms initially ruled the peninsula, but, after the Lombard invasion of 568–569,…
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• 19th-century political movements
  • 
    In history of Europe: The middle 19th century
    …resolve, particularly in Germany and Italy, where the repeated invasions by the French during the revolutionary period had led to reforms and stimulated alike royal and popular ambitions. In these two regions, liberalism and nationalism merged into one unceasing agitation that involved not merely the politically militant but the intellectual…
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• ancient Europe
  • 
    In history of Europe: Romans
    The original Mediterranean population of Italy was completely altered by repeated superimpositions of peoples of Indo-European stock. The first Indo-European migrants, who belonged to the Italic tribes, moved across the eastern Alpine passes into the plain of the Po River about 1800 bce. Later they crossed the Apennines and eventually…
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• ancient Rome
  • 
    In ancient Rome: Early Italy
    When Italy emerged into the light of history about 700 bc, it was already inhabited by various peoples of different cultures and languages. Most natives of the country lived in villages or small towns, supported themselves by agriculture or animal husbandry (Italia means “Calf…
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  • 
    In ancient Rome: Developments in Italy
    The 90s also saw dangerous developments in Italy. In the 2nd century bc, Italians as a whole had shown little desire for Roman citizenship and had been remarkably submissive under exploitation and ill-treatment. The most active of their governing class flourished in overseas business,…
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• Anti-Comintern Pact
  • In Anti-Comintern Pact
    25, 1936) and then between Italy, Germany, and Japan (Nov. 6, 1937), ostensibly directed against the Communist International (Comintern) but, by implication, specifically against the Soviet Union.
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• Bourbon dynasty
  • In house of Bourbon: The Bourbon sovereignties
    …of the Bourbon fortunes in Italy. The eldest son of Philip V’s second marriage, he became duke of Parma in 1731 by right of his mother, heiress of the last Farnese dukes, and in 1734, during the War of the Polish Succession, he conquered the Kingdom of Naples-Sicily (Kingdom of…
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• Byzantine Empire
  • 
    In Byzantine Empire: The years of achievement to 540
    …534 and 535 in Ostrogothic Italy made it the most likely victim after the fall of Vandal North Africa. When Theodoric died in 526, he was succeeded by a minor grandson for whom Theodoric’s daughter, Amalasuntha, acted as regent. Upon the boy’s death, Amalasuntha attempted to seize power in her…
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  • 
    In Byzantine Empire: Final Turkish assault
    …both of whom retired to Italy as cardinals of the Roman Church. Bessarion’s learning and library helped to encourage further Western interest in Greek scholarship. The union of Florence also helped to stimulate a Crusade against the Turks. Once again it was led by the king of Hungary, Władysław III…
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• Chinese trade
  • 
    In China: Yuan China and the West
    …European trade largely with the Italian republics (e.g., Genoa, Venice). To the Italians, trade with the East was so important that the Practica della mercatura, a handbook on foreign trade, included the description of trade routes to China.
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• coins and coinage
  • 
    In coin: Coins as historical data
    …supplied, and the mines of Italy led to the choice of bronze for the earliest coinage of Rome. With the development of internal economies and external trade, gold, silver, and copper or bronze quickly came to be used side by side; Philip II of Macedon popularized gold in Greece, but…
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  • 
    In coin: Origins of coins
    In Italy rough lumps of bronze (aes rude) formed a currency from early times, being succeeded by bars of regular weight; and Julius Caesar’s record of the ancient British use of iron bars as currency (following his raids on Britain in 55 and 54 bc) is…
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  • 
    In coin: Artistic development
    It was in Italy and Sicily that the finest work appeared. In Italy, Tarentine silver continued its type of Taras on a dolphin. In the middle of the 5th century the agonistic type showing a horseman appeared; the celebrated Tarentine cavalry was thus commemorated down to the middle…
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• Cold War
  • 
    In 20th-century international relations: The economic battle with Communism
    In Italy, too, Communists threatened to gain power by parliamentary means. All suffered from underproduction, a shortage of capital, and energy shortages exacerbated by the severe winter of 1946–47. Marshall therefore put forward a plan for cash grants to a joint European economic council “to assist…
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• communes
  • In commune
    In northern and central Italy (and parts of southern France) the absence of powerful centralizing political authority and, to a lesser extent, the precocious economic development of the towns enabled the commune to acquire a degree of self-government that easily surpassed the transaction of municipal affairs. Here the towns…
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• Dual Alliance
  • In Dual Alliance
    ) of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, and its terms were to be secret. It provided that in the event of an attack on France by Germany or by Italy supported by Germany, Russia would field 700,000 to 800,000 men to fight Germany; in the event of an attack on Russia…
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• Enlightenment
  • 
    In history of Europe: The Enlightenment throughout Europe
    …to see the monuments of Italy, or perhaps to listen to the music that they might recognize as the inspiration of some of the best of their own, were likely to return convinced that the country was backward. Its intellectual life might remain a closed book. As elsewhere, the Enlightenment…
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• Franco-German War
  • 
    In Franco-German War: Armistice and consequences
    …Papal States were annexed by Italy (September 20, 1870), thereby completing that nation’s unification. The Germans’ crushing victory over France in the war consolidated their faith in Prussian militarism, which would remain a dominant force in German society until 1945. (Additionally, the Prussian system of conscript armies controlled by a…
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• invasion by Spain
  • 
    In history of Europe: The crisis of the war, 1629–35
    …December 1627 created dangers in Italy that the Spaniards were unable to ignore and temptations that they were unable to resist. Hoping to forestall intervention by others, Spanish forces from Lombardy launched an invasion, but the garrisons of Mantua and Montferrat declared for the late duke’s relative, the French-born duke…
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• Medici family
  • 
    In Medici family
    Italian bourgeois family that ruled Florence and, later, Tuscany during most of the period from 1434 to 1737, except for two brief intervals (from 1494 to 1512 and from 1527 to 1530). It provided the Roman Catholic Church with four popes (Leo X, Clement VII,…
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• motion pictures
  • 
    In history of film: Pre-World War I European cinema
    …was dominated by France and Italy. At Pathé Frères, director general Ferdinand Zecca perfected the course comique, a uniquely Gallic version of the chase film, which inspired Mack Sennett’s Keystone Kops, while the immensely popular Max Linder created a comic persona that would deeply influence the work of
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• Napoleonic Europe
  • 
    In history of Europe: The Napoleonic era
    …scattered territories in Germany and Italy, and the welter of divided states was never restored. These developments, but also resentment at Napoleonic rule, sparked growing nationalism in these regions and also in Spain and Poland. Prussia and Russia, less touched by new ideologies, nevertheless introduced important political reforms as a…
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• post-World War II economic growth
  • 
    In history of Europe: Affluence and its underside
    Italy, however, was not to be left behind. With a comparatively low starting point, plentiful labour, and new discoveries of oil and, especially, natural gas, it was able to increase the gross national product by 32.9 percent between 1950 and 1954. In Italian industry between…
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• postwar boundary changes
  • 
    In 20th-century international relations: Peace treaties and territorial agreements
    Italy ceded the Dodecanese islands to Greece and surrendered its overseas colonies, although a Soviet demand for a trusteeship over Libya was denied. Trieste was contested by Italy and Yugoslavia and remained under Western occupation until 1954. The major change affected Poland, which was figuratively…
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• Protestant Reformation
  • 
    In Protestantism: The expansion of the Reformation in Europe
    In Italy sectarian and heretical movements had proliferated throughout the Middle Ages. But one by one they had been crushed or absorbed by the church. Furthermore, the Reformation failed to take hold in Italy because of the tradition of moral preaching by the friars. Another consideration…
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• radio broadcasting history
  • 
    In radio: Radio’s early years
    The pace quickened when Italy explored radio in 1924, followed by Japan, Mexico, Norway, and Poland in 1925. All these countries varied in how they authorized and organized radio services, with governments usually playing a far more central role than was the case in the United States.
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  • 
    In radio: Postwar rebuilding
    …stations in Austria, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, and Spain.
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  • 
    In radio: The FM phenomenon
    Italy, facing a severe shortage of medium-range frequencies, followed suit, providing its first FM services in the early 1950s. A decade later, multiple FM transmitters were operating in Belgium, Britain, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, and Sweden.
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  • 
    In radio: FM growth
    …1970s in both France and Italy. A number of unlicensed small FM stations went on the air in Italy in late 1974 and into 1975. When an Italian court held that the state broadcasting authority did not have a monopoly on local radio, hundreds of new stations followed, and by…
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  • 
    In radio: Pirates and public-service radio
    …were soon also stationed off Italy, France, and New Zealand. All the affected countries passed laws to limit advertiser support and provision of supplies to such broadcasters, but the transmissions continued, rapidly building huge audiences. Land-based pirate stations appeared in several countries (several hundred in France alone, for example), but…
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• Red Brigades
  • In Red Brigades
    …Brigades, militant left-wing organization in Italy that gained notoriety in the 1970s for kidnappings, murders, and sabotage. Its self-proclaimed aim was to undermine the Italian state and pave the way for a Marxist upheaval led by a “revolutionary proletariat.”
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• Revolutions of 1848
  • In Revolutions of 1848
    In Italy, at first, the revolution only took the form of a nationalist rising against Austria led by the king of Sardinia under the Italian tricolour, the “white, red, and green.” The republic was proclaimed in 1849, and then only in Rome and Tuscany. Within the…
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• Seven Weeks’ War
  • 
    In Seven Weeks’ War
    …of the south and the Italians, who had made an alliance with Prussia.
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• trade in early modern Europe
  • 
    In history of Europe: Trade and the Atlantic revolution
    In the Middle Ages, Italian ports—Venice and Genoa in particular—dominated trade with the Middle East and supplied Europe with Eastern wares and spices. In the north, German cities, organized into a loose federation known as the Hanseatic League, similarly dominated Baltic trade. When the Portuguese in 1498 opened direct…
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• Vienna Congress
  • 
    In Congress of Vienna: Decisions of the congress
    In Italy, Piedmont absorbed Genoa; Tuscany and Modena went to an Austrian archduke; and the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza was given to Marie-Louise, consort of the deposed Napoleon. The Papal States were restored to the pope, and Naples went to the Sicilian Bourbons
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• War of the Spanish Succession
  • 
    In War of the Spanish Succession: Dynastic claims
    …and the rest of Spanish Italy, as well as the Basque province of Guipúzcoa, was to go to the dauphin Louis.
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20th-century diplomacy

• Austrian conflict over Alto Adige
  • 
    In Austria: Restoration of sovereignty
    …relations were the conflict with Italy over Südtirol (southern Tirol; now part of the Italian Trentino–Alto Adige region) and the problem of association with the European Economic Community (EEC; later succeeded by the European Union). During the Paris Peace Conference of 1946, an agreement had been signed guaranteeing the rights…
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• build-up to World War II
  • 
    In 20th-century international relations: The realist vision
    Exhausted Italy was even less able than France to absorb the costs of war. Labour unrest compounded the usual ministerial instability and enhanced the public appeal of anti-Communist nationalists like Benito Mussolini. But the hope that the war would prove somehow worthwhile put peace aims at…
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  • 
    In 20th-century international relations: Poland and Soviet anxiety
    Germany and Italy then turned their Axis into a military alliance known as the Pact of Steel on May 22.
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• Fiume dispute
  • In Fiume question
    …post-World War I controversy between Italy and Yugoslavia over the control of the Adriatic port of Fiume (known in Croatia as Rijeka; q.v.).
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• Lausanne Treaty
  • In Treaty of Lausanne
    …British possession of Cyprus and Italian possession of the Dodecanese. The Allies dropped their demands of autonomy for Turkish Kurdistan and Turkish cession of territory to Armenia, abandoned claims to spheres of influence in Turkey, and imposed no controls over Turkey’s finances or armed forces. The Turkish straits between the…
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• Locarno, Pact of
  • 
    In Pact of Locarno
    Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy mutually guaranteed peace in western Europe. The treaties were initialed at Locarno, Switz., on October 16 and signed in London on December 1.
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• London Naval Conference
  • In London Naval Conference
    …of the United States, France, Italy, and Japan. At the end of three months of meetings, general agreement had been secured on the regulation of submarine warfare and a five-year moratorium on the construction of capital ships. The limitation of aircraft carriers, provided for by the Washington Five-Power Treaty (1922),…
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• London Treaty
  • In Treaty of London
    …1915) secret treaty between neutral Italy and the Allied forces of France, Britain, and Russia to bring Italy into World War I. The Allies wanted Italy’s participation because of its border with Austria. Italy was promised Trieste, southern Tyrol, northern Dalmatia, and other territories in return for a pledge to…
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• Munich Agreement
  • 
    In Munich Agreement
    Great Britain, France, and Italy that permitted German annexation of the Sudetenland, in western Czechoslovakia.
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• Paris Peace Conference
  • 
    In Paris Peace Conference
    , and Italian heads of government and foreign ministers—respectively, Georges Clemenceau and Stephen Pichon; Lloyd George and Arthur James Balfour; Woodrow Wilson (who fell ill at the conference, probably having contracted the flu as the influenza pandemic of 1918–19 raged) and Robert Lansing; and
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• Versailles Treaty
  • 
    In Treaty of Versailles: The Paris Peace Conference
    …Orlando, the prime minister of Italy. The first three in particular made the important decisions. None of the defeated nations had any say in shaping the treaty, and even the associated Allied powers played only a minor role. The German delegates were presented with a fait accompli. They were shocked…
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ancient Italy

• In Italy
  Italy, in Roman antiquity, the Italian Peninsula from the Apennines in the north to the “boot” in the south. In 42 bc Cisalpine Gaul, north of the Apennines, was added; and in the late 3rd century ad Italy came to include the islands of Sicily,…
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• Theodoric
  • 
    In Theodoric: Early life
    …to make his way to Italy, overthrow its barbarian ruler Odoacer, and govern the peninsula in the Emperor’s name. With his people, who may have numbered 100,000 persons, Theodoric arrived in Italy in late August 489. In the following year he defeated Odoacer in three pitched battles and won control…
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colonies, protectorates, and overseas exploration

• In Western colonialism: Antecedents of European expansion
  …largely into the hands of Italian cities.
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• In Western colonialism: Africa
  During World War II Italy lost its entire colonial domain. Ethiopia was restored as an independent empire, and the other colonies eventually came under UN jurisdiction, in the first step toward decolonization in the African continent.
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• Dalmatia
  • 
    In Dalmatia
    …including northern Dalmatia, to the Italians in return for their support. This treaty embittered negotiations for a peace settlement. Finally, the Treaty of Rapallo (November 12, 1920) between Italy and Yugoslavia gave all Dalmatia to the Yugoslavs except the mainland Zadar (Italian: Zara) enclave and the coastal islands of Cres,…
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• Dedocanese islands
  • 
    In Dodecanese
    …led to a dispute between Italy and Greece over which nation should have jurisdiction over the islands. In 1919 an agreement was reached whereby Italy would cede the Dodecanese to Greece with the exception of Rhodes, which was to have broad local autonomy. Subsequent Italian governments, however, unilaterally denounced the…
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• Eritrea
  • 
    In Eritrea: Contesting for the coastlands and beyond
    Between 1869 and 1880 the Italian Rubattino Navigation Company purchased from the local Afar sultan stretches of the Red Sea coast adjoining the village of Asseb. In 1882 these acquisitions were transferred to the Italian state, and in 1885 Italian troops landed at Massawa, Asseb, and other locations. There was…
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• Ethiopia
  • In Battle of Adwa
    Emperor Menilek II and Italian forces. The Ethiopian army’s victory checked Italy’s attempt to build an empire in Africa. The victory had further significance for being the first crushing defeat of a European power by African forces during the colonial era.
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  • 
    In Italo-Ethiopian War
    >Italian rule. Often seen as one of the episodes that prepared the way for World War II, the war demonstrated the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations when League decisions were not supported by the great powers.
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  • 
    In eastern Africa: Revival of the Ethiopian empire
    Italian adventurers, scientists, and missionaries helped organize a route, outside imperial control, that took Shewan caravans to the coast, where Menilek’s ivory, gold, hides, and furs could be sold for a sizable (and untaxed) profit.
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  • 
    In Ethiopia
    …1896, when it defeated colonial Italy in the Battle of Adwa, and again in 1935–36, when it was invaded and occupied by fascist Italy. Liberation during World War II by the Allied powers set the stage for Ethiopia to play a more prominent role in world affairs. Ethiopia was among…
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  • 
    In Ethiopia: Yohannes IV (1872–89)
    …he was unable to prevent Italy from disembarking troops at Mitsiwa (now Massawa) in February 1885. In order to weaken the emperor, Rome tried to buy Sahle Mariam’s cooperation with thousands of rifles. The Shewan king remained faithful to Yohannes but took the opportunity in January 1887 to incorporate Harer…
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• Italian East Africa
  • In Italian East Africa
    Italian possessions in eastern Africa in the period 1936–41. It comprised Ethiopia (annexed by Italy on May 9, 1936, and proclaimed a part of Italian East Africa June 1) together with the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Italian Somaliland (now part of Somalia). Italy’s king,…
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• Libya
  • 
    In Akhḍar Mountains
    …and was colonized by the Italians in the 1930s. The settlements, interrupted during World War II and later deserted, have now been reoccupied by Libyans. Livestock herding (camels, goats, and sheep) among the mountains involves a degree of nomadism, and there is limited agriculture, notably in the al-Marj plain and…
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  • 
    In Tripolitania
    …Italo-Turkish War of 1911–12, the Italians occupied Tripoli in 1911 and acquired all of Tripolitania from Turkey in 1912. Together with Cyrenaica and Fezzan, Tripolitania was incorporated into the kingdom of Italy in 1939. Tripolitania was the scene of fierce fighting between British and German armoured forces in 1942 during…
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  • 
    In Libya: Ottoman rule
    …reform; in 1911, however, the Italians, who had banking and other interests in the country, launched an invasion.
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• Menilek II’s opposition
  • In Menilek II: King of Shewa
    …Menilek appeared to befriend the Italians, but a quarrel later developed. The Italians interpreted Article XVII of the Treaty of Wichale (Uccialli), concluded in 1889 by the Italians and Menilek, as giving Italy a protectorate over Ethiopia. It is quite inconceivable that Menilek would have agreed to his historic country…
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• Ogaden invasion
  • 
    In Ogaden
    Italy occupied the Welwel (Walwal) oasis in the early 1930s and launched a full-scale invasion of the Ogaden from Somaliland in 1935. The next year Ethiopia, including the Ogaden, was proclaimed part of Italian East Africa. Although Ethiopia was liberated by Free French and British…
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• Somalia
  • 
    In Mogadishu
    …port was leased to the Italians in 1892 and sold to them in 1905 under pressure from the British, who had established a protectorate over the Sultanate of Zanzibar. Subsequently the capital of Italian Somaliland and of the Somalia trust territory, Mogadishu became the capital of independent Somalia in 1960.…
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  • 
    In Somalia: Competition between the European powers and Ethiopia
    …of competition between Great Britain, Italy, and France. On the African continent itself Egypt also was involved, and later Ethiopia, expanding and consolidating its realm under the guiding leadership of the emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, and Menilek II. Britain’s interest in the northern Somali coast followed the establishment in
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  • 
    In Somalia: Independence and union
    …last-minute marriage between the former Italian trust territory and the former British protectorate. Urgent improvements in communication between the two areas were necessary, as were readjustments in their legal and judicial systems. The first independent government was formed by a coalition of the southern-based Somali Youth League (SYL) and the…
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• Sykes-Picot Agreement
  • 
    In Sykes-Picot Agreement: Impact and legacy
    …pact excited the ambitions of Italy, to whom it was communicated in August 1916, after the Italian declaration of war against Germany, with the result that it had to be supplemented, in April 1917, by the Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne, whereby Great Britain and France promised southern and southwestern Anatolia to…
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• Treaty of Wichale
  • In Treaty of Wichale
    …at Wichale, Ethiopia, by the Italians and Menilek II of Ethiopia, whereby Italy was granted the northern Ethiopian territories of Bogos, Hamasen, and Akale-Guzai (modern Eritrea and northern Tigray) in exchange for a sum of money and the provision of 30,000 muskets and 28 cannons.
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• Vespucci’s contribution
  • 
    In Amerigo Vespucci: Early life
    …relation, sent by the famous Italian Medici family to be their spokesman to the king of France. On returning, Vespucci entered the “bank” of Lorenzo and Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici and gained the confidence of his employers. At the end of 1491 their agent, Giannotto Berardi, appears to have…
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foreign relations

• Albania
  • 
    In Albania: Bishop Noli and King Zog
    …a number of accords with Italy. These provided transitory financial relief to Albania, but they effected no basic change in its economy, especially under the conditions of the worldwide Great Depression of the 1930s.
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• Austria
  • 
    In Austria: The Age of Metternich, 1815–48
    …suppressing liberalism and radicalism in Italy. In 1821 Austrian troops put down risings in Naples and Piedmont; in 1831 rebellions in Parma, Modena, and the Papal States likewise ended in suppression by Austrian soldiers. The Austrian regime became the nemesis of the Carbonari and Young Italy, two movements associated with…
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  • 
    In Austria: Revolution and counterrevolution, 1848–59
    …serious national rising occurred in Italy. Since 1815 many Italians had looked upon the Habsburgs as foreign occupiers or oppressors, so when news of revolution reached their lands, the banner of revolt went up in many places, especially Milan and Venice. Outside the Habsburg lands, liberal uprisings also swept Rome…
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  • 
    In Austria: Foreign policy, 1878–1908
    And when, in 1882, Italy approached Germany to find a partner in its anti-French policy, Bismarck used the opportunity to neutralize another European trouble spot. He told the Italian foreign minister that the road to Berlin led through Vienna, with the result that the Triple Alliance (comprising Italy, Germany,…
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• Corfu
  • 
    In Corfu
    In 1923 Italian forces bombarded and held Corfu briefly, following the murder of an Italian boundary delegation. In World War II the city was again bombed by the Italians and occupied in succession (1941–44) by Italians and Germans. Many of its buildings and other landmarks were destroyed…
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• Croatia
  • 
    In Croatia: From World War I to the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes
    …Treaty of London, which promised Italy extensive Habsburg territories on the Adriatic in return for entering the war on the Allied side. Representatives of the Habsburg South Slavs in exile, led by the former Croat-Serb Coalition politicians Ante Trumbić and Frano Supilo, set up the Yugoslav Committee to promote the…
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  • 
    In Croatia: World War II
    …occupation by the German and Italian armies, Pavelić’s Ustaša was put into power—a takeover facilitated by the refusal of Maček to take part in a puppet government and by the passivity of the Roman Catholic archbishop of Zagreb, Alojzije Stepinac. Initially there was enthusiasm for the independent state, but once…
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• Czechoslovakia
  • 
    In Czechoslovak history: The establishment of the republic
    Relations with Italy, originally friendly, deteriorated after Benito Mussolini’s rise to power in 1922. Czech anticlerical feeling precluded the negotiation of a concordat with the papacy until 1928, when an agreement settled the most serious disputes between church and state. Ultimately, it was Germany that most strongly…
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• Hungary
  • 
    In Hungary: Financial crisis: the rise of right radicalism
    …an “Axis” composed of Hungary, Italy, and Germany, since his two proposed partners were then at loggerheads over Austria. Gömbös, one of whose first acts had been to dash to Rome and breathe new life into Hungary’s friendship with Italy, now found himself drawn into the “Rome Triangle” (Italy, Austria,…
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• Japan
  • 
    In Japan: Foreign relations
    …with Germany and later with Italy. This was replaced by the Tripartite Pact in September 1940, which recognized Japan as the leader of a new order in Asia; Japan, Germany, and Italy agreed to assist each other if they were attacked by any additional power not yet at war with…
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• Montenegro
  • 
    In Montenegro: Illyrians, Romans, and Slavs
    Before the arrival of the Slav peoples in the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries ce, the area now known as Montenegro was inhabited principally by people known as Illyrians. Little is known of their origins or language, but they are…
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• Ottoman Empire and Turkey
  • 
    In Ottoman Empire: Foreign relations
    Italy seized Tripoli (Libya) and occupied the Dodecanese, a group of islands in the Aegean Sea; by the Treaty of Lausanne (October 18, 1912) Italy retained the former but agreed to evacuate the Dodecanese. In fact, however, it continued to occupy them.
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  • 
    In Turkey: The Fundamental Law and abolition of the sultanate
    Domestic problems induced Italy to begin withdrawal from the territory it occupied, and, by the Treaty of Ankara (Franklin-Bouillon Agreement, October 20, 1921), France agreed to evacuate the southern region of Cilicia. Finally, by the Armistice of Mudanya, the Allies agreed to Turkish reoccupation of Istanbul and eastern…
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• Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis
  • In Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis
    …Spain for the control of Italy, leaving Habsburg Spain the dominant power there for the next 150 years. In the last phase of the war, fought mostly outside of Italy, France was beaten at the battles of Saint-Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558). These defeats, coupled with the beginning of the…
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• Serbia
  • 
    In Serbia: The Corfu Declaration
    …April 1915 by which the Italians were promised Istria and large areas of Slovenia and Dalmatia in return for their participation on the Entente side. The stagnation of the war during 1916 and early 1917 added to the general indifference of the major Entente powers to the fate of the…
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• Spain
  • 
    In Spain: Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, 1276–1479
    …opted to pursue ambitions in Italy and generally neglected his peninsular domains. After occupying the Kingdom of Naples in 1442, he hoped to lord it over the rest of Italy and to extend his influence and power into the eastern Mediterranean. A spirit of discontent fostered by his long absence…
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• Switzerland
  • 
    In Switzerland: Expansion and position of power
    …emperor, France, Spain, and the Italian powers over control of the duchy of Milan. The Swiss had more than a passing interest in this area, having followed Uri and extended their control into the southern Alpine valleys while fighting against the Milanese during the 15th century. The elites of the…
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• Triple Alliance
  • In Triple Alliance
    Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed in May 1882 and renewed periodically until World War I. Germany and Austria-Hungary had been closely allied since 1879. Italy sought their support against France shortly after losing North African ambitions to the French. The treaty provided that Germany and Austria-Hungary were to…
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• Turkey
  • In Italo-Turkish War
    …War, (1911–12), war undertaken by Italy to gain colonies in North Africa by conquering the Turkish provinces of Tripolitana and Cyrenaica (modern Libya). The conflict upset the precarious international balance of power just prior to World War I by revealing the weakness of Turkey and, within Italy, unleashed the nationalist-expansionist…
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• United Kingdom
  • 
    In United Kingdom: Foreign policy and appeasement
    In August 1935 Italy attacked the empire of Ethiopia in Africa, announcing that it had apprised Britain and France at Stresa of its intentions of doing so. British public opinion was torn between a desire to avoid war and an unwillingness to sanction unprovoked aggression. The compromise was…
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• United States
  • 
    In United States: The road to war
    As Italy prepared to invade Ethiopia, Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1935, embargoing shipment of arms to either aggressor or victim. Stronger legislation followed the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, in effect penalizing the Spanish government, whose fascist enemies were
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French Revolution

• 
  In French Revolution: The Directory and revolutionary expansion
  …French army under Bonaparte entered Italy (1796), Sardinia came quickly to terms. Austria was the last to give in (Treaty of Campo Formio, 1797). Most of the countries occupied by the French were organized as “sister republics,” with institutions modeled on those of Revolutionary France.
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• Battle of Lodi
  • In Battle of Lodi
    …troops of Napoleon’s Army of Italy and K.P. Sebottendorf’s 10,000 troops, the rear guard of Jean-Pierre Beaulieu’s Austrian army. After knocking the kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont) out of the war in April, Napoleon turned northeastward against Beaulieu. Beaulieu refused to stand and fight, afraid to lose his army in a…
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• Campo Formio Treaty
  • In Treaty of Campo Formio
    …at Campo Formio (now Campoformido, Italy), a village in Venezia Giulia southwest of Udine, following the defeat of Austria in Napoleon Bonaparte’s first Italian campaign.
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• Pressburg Treaty
  • In Treaty of Pressburg
    …excluded Austria from influence in Italy. The treaty was an integral part of Napoleon’s policy of creating a ring of French client states beyond the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees.
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• Siege of Mantua
  • In Siege of Mantua
    …excluded the Austrians from northern Italy. The city was easy to besiege: the only access to it was via five causeways over the Mincio River. The two Austrian commanders, Count Dagobert Siegmund Graf von Wurmser and Baron Josef Alvintzy, in four successive tries, repeated the same mistakes of giving priority…
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Holy Roman Empire

• 
  In Holy Roman Empire: Nature of the empire
  …its constituent kingdoms, Germany and Italy, though clearly they are interrelated. The constituent territories retained their identity; the emperors, in addition to the imperial crown, also wore the crowns of their kingdoms. Finally, whereas none of the earlier emperors from Otto I had assumed the imperial title until actually crowned…
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• 
  In Holy Roman Empire: The empire after Frederick II
  …of the 14th) and in Italy (Marsilius of Padua and Dante), but the emperor Charles IV, a sober realist, drew the necessary conclusions. By then the axiom that “the king is emperor in his kingdom” was firmly established; it marked the end of any universalist dream. Charles set out accordingly…
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• Conrad II
  • In Conrad II
    …Ariberto crowned him king of Italy. After brief fighting, Conrad overcame the opposition of some towns and nobles and managed to reach Rome, where he was crowned emperor by Pope John XIX on Easter 1027. When a renewed rebellion in Germany forced him to return, he subdued the rebels and…
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• Frederick I Barbarossa
  • 
    In Frederick I: Early years
    …in the Mediterranean and in Italy. Southern Italy and Sicily were united in the Norman kingdom of Roger II. The cities of the Lombards, which had been little more than a nuisance to the earlier emperors, had now become more powerful.
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• Henry II
  • 
    In Henry II
    …campaign, he marched into northern Italy to subdue Arduin of Ivrea, who had styled himself king of Italy. His sudden interference led to bitter fighting and atrocities, and although Henry was crowned king in Pavia on May 15, 1004, he returned home, without defeating Arduin, to pursue his campaigns against…
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• Lombard League
  • 
    In Lombard League
    …league of cities in northern Italy that, in the 12th and 13th centuries, resisted attempts by the Holy Roman emperors to reduce the liberties and jurisdiction of the communes of Lombardy. Originally formed for a period of 20 years on Dec. 1, 1167, the Lombard League initially consisted of 16…
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• Maximilian I
  • 
    In Maximilian I: Consolidation of power
    Italy (1494) upset the European balance of power. Maximilian allied himself with the pope, Spain, Venice, and Milan in the so-called Holy League (1495) to drive out the French, who were conquering Naples. He campaigned in Italy in 1496, but, although the French were expelled,…
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• Otto I the Great
  • 
    In Otto I: Foreign conquests
    …Adelaide, the widowed queen of Italy whom the margrave Berengar of Ivrea had taken prisoner, appealed to him for help, Otto marched into Italy in 951, assumed the title of king of the Lombards, and married Adelaide himself, his first wife having died in 946. In 952 Berengar did homage…
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Kingdom of

• House of Savoy
  • In House of Savoy
    …became the ruling house of Italy in the mid-19th century and remained so until overthrown with the establishment of the Italian Republic in 1946.
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• Sardinia
  • 
    In Ravenna
    …which became the kingdom of Italy in 1861.
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  • 
    In Sardinia
    …of the new kingdom of Italy proclaimed by the first Italian parliament on March 17, 1861. Charles Albert’s son, Victor Emmanuel II, became the first king of unified Italy. See also house of Savoy.
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• Two Sicilies
  • 
    In Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
    …the southern part of the Italian peninsula with the island of Sicily between the mid-15th and the mid-19th centuries. (For a brief history of the state, see Naples, Kingdom of.) United by the Normans in the 11th century, the two areas were divided in 1282 between the Angevin (French) dynasty…
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Middle Ages

• Basil I
  • 
    In Basil I
    Basil’s plans for Italy involved him in negotiations with the Frankish emperor Louis II, the great-grandson of Charlemagne. The Byzantine position in southern Italy was strengthened with the help of the Lombard duchy of Benevento, and the campaigns of Nicephorus Phocas the Elder did much to consolidate this.…
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• Crusades
  • 
    In Crusades: The military orders
    The Italians had acquired exceptional privileges in the ports because they supplied the indispensable naval aid and shipping essential to regular contact with Europe. These privileges usually included a quarter that they maintained as a virtually independent enclave. Its status was guaranteed by treaty between the…
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• German invasions
  • 
    In Germany: The Ottonian conquest of Italy and the imperial crown
    …widow of the king of Italy, who had been jailed by Berengar II, the king of Italy. Otto defeated Berengar, secured Adelaide’s release, and then married her. His first Italian campaign was also motivated by political developments in Germany, including the competing ambitions in Italy of his son Liudolf, duke…
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  • 
    In Germany: Hohenstaufen policy in Italy
    …the 12th century—Lombardy and central Italy—the emperors and their military following alone counted. Indeed, from the very start of his reign, Frederick Barbarossa sought to recover and exploit regalian and imperial rights over the growing Lombard city communes and the rest of Italy. The connection between the German crown, the…
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• Guelfs and Ghibellines
  • In Guelf and Ghibelline
    …opposing factions in German and Italian politics during the Middle Ages. The split between the Guelfs, who were sympathetic to the papacy, and the Ghibellines, who were sympathetic to the German (Holy Roman) emperors, contributed to chronic strife within the cities of northern Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries.
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• House of Este
  • In house of Este
    …history of medieval and Renaissance Italy. The family first came to the front in the wars between the Guelfs and Ghibellines during the 13th century. As leaders of the Guelfs, Estensi princes received at different times Ferrara, Modena, Reggio, and other fiefs and territories. Members of the family ruled in…
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• Justinian I
  • 
    In Justinian I: Foreign policy and wars
    In Italy, the mother province of the Roman Empire in which the older capital city (Rome) was situated, Justinian found a situation similar to that in North Africa and particularly favourable to his ambitions. Under his immediate predecessors, Italy had been ruled by a barbarian, the…
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• Lombard migration
  • In Lombard
    …Lombards decided to migrate into Italy, which had been left almost defenseless after the Byzantine Empire’s armies had overthrown the Ostrogothic kingdom there. In the spring of 568 the Lombards crossed the Julian Alps. Their invasion of northern Italy was almost unopposed, and by late 569 they had conquered all…
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• Pippin III
  • 
    In Pippin III: Pippin and Pope Stephen II
    The pope returned to Italy accompanied by Pippin and his army. A fierce battle was fought in the Alps against Aistulf and the Lombards. The Lombard king fled back to his capital, Pavia; Pippin and his men plundered the land around Pavia until Aistulf promised to restore to papal…
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  • 
    In France: Pippin III
    Pippin campaigned in Italy against the Lombards twice (754–755; 756) on the appeal of the pope and laid the foundations for the Papal States with the so-called Donation of Pippin. He exchanged ambassadors with the great powers of the eastern Mediterranean—the Byzantine Empire and the Caliphate of Baghdad.…
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• podestà
  • In podesta
    Italian communes, the highest judicial and military magistrate. The office was instituted by the Holy Roman emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in an attempt to govern rebellious Lombard cities. From the end of the 12th century the communes became somewhat more independent of the emperor, and…
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• popolo
  • In popolo
    …the communes (city-states) of 13th-century Italy, a pressure group instituted to protect the interests of the commoners (actually, wealthy merchants and businessmen) against the nobility that up to then had exclusively controlled commune governments. It was one of a number of groups competing for power in the commune and in…
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• Robert Guiscard
  • In Robert
    …settled in Apulia, in southern Italy, about 1047 and became duke of Apulia (1059). He eventually extended Norman rule over Naples, Calabria, and Sicily and laid the foundations of the kingdom of Sicily.
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• signoria
  • In signoria
    (Italian: “lordship”), in the medieval and Renaissance Italian city-states, a government run by a signore (lord, or despot) that replaced republican institutions either by force or by agreement. It was the characteristic form of government in Italy from the middle of the 13th century until…
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organized crime

• Camorra
  • 
    In Camorra
    Italian secret society of criminals that grew to power in Naples during the 19th century. Its origins are uncertain, but it may have existed in Spain as early as the 15th century and been transported thence to Italy. As the Camorra grew in influence and…
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• Mafia
  • 
    In Mafia
    …society of criminals of primarily Italian or Sicilian birth or extraction. The term applies to the traditional criminal organization in Sicily and also to a criminal organization in the United States.
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political movements

fascism

• 
  In history of Europe: The trappings of dictatorship
  … founded the fascist party in Italy. Its emblem, the fasces (a bundle of rods with an axe in the centre), was a symbol of state power adopted from ancient Rome. Explicitly anticommunist, it was as opposed to the withering away of the state as it was to individualistic liberalism. “For…
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• 
  In fascism: Italy
  One of the largest neofascist movements in western Europe in the 1990s was the Italian Social Movement (Movimento Sociale Italiano [MSI]; renamed the National Alliance [Alleanza Nazionale] in 1994). Founded in 1946, it was led at various times by Giorgio Almirante, Augusto De Marsanich,…
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• reintroduction of capital punishment

  • 
    In capital punishment: The abolition movement
    …Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Italy, had followed suit (though it was reintroduced in Italy under the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini). By the mid-1960s some 25 countries had abolished the death penalty for murder, though only about half of them also had abolished it for offenses against the state…
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• anarchism

  • 
    In anarchism: Russian anarchist thought
    …had a considerable following in Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and the Rhône valley of France—but had modified Proudhonian teachings into a doctrine later known as collectivism. Bakunin accepted Proudhon’s federalism and his insistence on the need for working-class direct action, but he argued that the modified property rights Proudhon allowed were
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• communism

  • In Eurocommunism
    …the Italian Communist Party remained Italy’s second largest party, partly by stressing its independence of Moscow. Its foreign contacts and sympathies seemed to lie more with the European social democrats and labour parties, and in 1991 it changed its name to Democratic Party of the Left (shortened to Democrats of…
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• conservatism

  • 
    In conservatism: Continental Europe
    In Italy clerical interests remained strongly represented in the Christian Democratic Party (from 1993 the Italian Popular Party), which dominated governments in that country for four decades from 1945. This party never possessed a coherent policy, however, because it was little more than a disparate alliance…
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• liberalism

  • 
    In history of Europe: Political patterns
    In Italy, conservatives and liberals were so similar that commentators noted a process of transformism (trasformismo), by which parliamentary deputies, regardless of their electoral platforms, were transformed into virtually identical power seekers once in Rome.
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Renaissance

• 
  In history of Europe: The Italian Renaissance
  Although town revival was a general feature of 10th- and 11th-century Europe (associated with an upsurge in population that is not completely understood), in Italy the urban imprint of Roman times had never been erased. By the 11th century, the towers…
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• Francis I of France
  • 
    In Francis I: Promise of a great reign
    …mother, and galloped off to Italy.
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• Machiavelli
  • 
    In Niccolò Machiavelli
    …21, 1527, Florence) was an Italian Renaissance political philosopher and statesman, secretary of the Florentine republic, whose most famous work, The Prince (Il Principe), brought him a reputation as an atheist and an immoral cynic.
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Spanish Civil War involvement

• 
  In Spanish Civil War
  …called, received aid from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. The Republicans received aid from the Soviet Union as well as from the International Brigades, composed of volunteers from Europe and the United States.
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• Franco
  • 
    In Francisco Franco: Franco’s military rebellion
    Germany and Benito Mussolini’s Italy, Franco was the obvious choice. In part because he was not a typical Spanish “political general,” Franco became head of state of the new Nationalist regime on October 1, 1936. The rebel government did not, however, gain complete control of the country for more…
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World War I

• 
  In World War I: The outbreak of war
  Italy had confirmed the Triple Alliance on December 7, 1912, but could now propound formal arguments for disregarding it: first, Italy was not obliged to support its allies in a war of aggression; second, the original treaty of 1882 had stated expressly that the alliance…
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• 
  In World War I: Italy and the Italian front, 1915–16
  …secret Treaty of London with Italy, inducing the latter to discard the obligations of the Triple Alliance and to enter the war on the side of the Allies by the promise of territorial aggrandizement at Austria-Hungary’s expense. Italy was offered not only the Italian-populated Trentino and Trieste but also South…
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• Great Powers
  • 
    In 20th-century international relations: The era of the great powers
    …the triumph of nationalism in Italy and Germany (1871), the establishment of universal manhood suffrage in Germany (1867), equality for the Hungarians in the Habsburg monarchy (1867), emancipation of the serfs in Russia (1861), and the adoption of free trade by the major European states all seemed to justify faith…
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  • 
    In 20th-century international relations: Germany’s final battles
    …case, the British, French, and Italians (fearing Wilsonian leniency and angry about not being consulted after the first note) insisted that their military commands be consulted on the armistice terms. This in turn gave the Allies a chance to ensure that Germany be rendered unable to take up resistance again…
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• Isonzo Battles
  • In Battles of the Isonzo
    …the eastern sector of the Italian Front in World War I.
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World War II

• 
  In 20th-century international relations: The Western front
  …war, believing that a neutral Italy would cease to be regarded as a Great Power and that he needed war in order to fulfill his expansionist fantasies and permit the full triumph of Fascism at home. Yet in August 1939 he demanded from Germany 6,000,000 tons of coal, 2,000,000 tons…
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• 
  In 20th-century international relations: Allied strategy to the fall of Italy
  The new Italian government, far from exiting the war, was obliged to do a volte-face and declare war on Germany on October 13. The Allies did not take Naples until October 1 and made no dent in the Germans’ reinforced Gustav Line until 1944.
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• 
  In World War II: Italy’s entry into the war and the French Armistice
  Italy had been unprepared for war when Hitler attacked Poland, but if the Italian leader, Benito Mussolini, was to reap any positive advantages from partnership with Hitler it seemed that Italy would have to abandon its…
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• Axis powers
  • 
    In Axis powers
    headed by Germany, Italy, and Japan that opposed the Allied powers in World War II. The alliance originated in a series of agreements between Germany and Italy, followed by the proclamation of an “axis” binding Rome and Berlin (October 25, 1936), with the two powers claiming that the…
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• Churchill
  • 
    In Winston Churchill: Exclusion from office, 1929–39
    The crisis that developed when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935 found Churchill ill prepared, divided between a desire to build up the League of Nations around the concept of collective security and the fear that collective action would drive Benito Mussolini into the arms of Hitler. The Spanish Civil War…
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• entrance in the war
  • 
    In Battle of France: Italian entrance into war and the capture of Paris
    On June 10, 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was wholly unprepared to take advantage of Germany’s invasion of Poland, and, if Italy were to derive any benefit from the…
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• Greece
  • 
    In Greece: The Balkan Wars
    In 1911, when Italy attacked the Ottoman Empire—in the process occupying the largely Greek-populated Dodecanese—Greece, no less than the other Balkan states, wanted its share of the spoils from the ever more likely collapse of Ottoman rule in the Balkans. However, Greece’s situation differed from that of its…
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• Hitler
  • 
    In Adolf Hitler: Dictator, 1933–39
    He saw fascist Italy as his natural ally in this crusade. Britain was a possible ally, provided that it would abandon its traditional policy of maintaining the balance of power in Europe and limit itself to its interests overseas. In the west France remained the natural enemy of…
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• Mussolini
  • 
    In Benito Mussolini
    …1945, near Dongo) was the Italian prime minister (1922–43) and the first of 20th-century Europe’s fascist dictators.
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• North Africa campaigns
  • 
    In North Africa campaigns: Egypt and Cyrenaica (June 1940–June 1941)
    When Benito Mussolini took Italy into the war, the Italian forces in North and East Africa were overwhelmingly superior in numbers to the scanty British forces opposing them. Commanding the British was Gen. Archibald Wavell, who had been appointed to the newly created post of commander in chief for…
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  • 
    In North Africa campaigns: Egypt and Cyrenaica (June 1940–June 1941)
    …the near collapse of the Italians’ hold on North Africa.
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  • 
    In North Africa campaigns: Egypt and Cyrenaica (June 1940–June 1941)
    …the British engaged the main Italian force on February 6. Although the Italians boasted 100 cruiser tanks and the British could field fewer than one-third of that number, British tank commanders utilized the terrain far more skillfully. When night fell, 60 of the Italian tanks had been crippled, and the…
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  • 
    In North Africa campaigns: Egypt and Cyrenaica (June 1940–June 1941)
    …more slowly by two new Italian divisions. British forces hastily fell back in confusion and on April 3 evacuated Benghazi. O’Connor was sent to advise the local commander, but his unescorted staff car ran into a German advance group on the night of April 6, and he was taken prisoner.…
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  • 
    In North Africa campaigns: Rommel’s advance and the fall of Tobruk
    …German divisions, followed by an Italian armoured division and an Italian motorized infantry division. He left four unmotorized Italian divisions as a holding force opposite the Gazala line. The British response was piecemeal, but Rommel could not complete a drive to the sea that would have enveloped the British on…
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  • 
    In North Africa campaigns: Montgomery in the desert
    …paratroops and a division of Italian paratroops. He had about 200 medium tanks in his two panzer divisions and 240 in two Italian armoured divisions. While the Italian tanks were older models, Rommel’s force included 74 Panzer IIIs mounted with 50-mm guns and 26 Panzer IVs mounted with new 75-mm…
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• Quebec Conference
  • 
    In Quebec Conference
    …the forthcoming Allied invasions of Italy and France and was attended by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Differences between U.S. and British strategists about the coordination of the Italian campaign with Operation Overlord (the
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• Slovenia
  • 
    In Slovenia: Interwar Yugoslavia
    …the war, the Allies awarded Italy all the coastal areas that had given Slovenes access to the sea—including Gorizia (Gorica), Trieste, and Istria. The Yugoslav kingdom was given the Prekmurje region and southern Styria but only a small part of southern Carinthia. Yugoslav troops occupied much of the Klagenfurt basin,…
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