In acquittal In the Middle Ages it was an obligation of an intermediate lord to protect his tenants against interference from his own overlord. The term is also used in contract law to signify a discharge or release from an obligation. Read More
agency law
In agency: Medieval influence of canon law and Germanic law Labouring under the influence of Roman law, legal development in the Middle Ages strove to overcome disadvantages in daily commercial life caused by the Roman rejection of the principle of agency. Through the efforts of legal scholars… Read More
bankruptcy
In bankruptcy: Early developments The medieval Italian cities enacted statutes dealing with the collection and distribution of the assets of debtors, especially merchants, who had absconded or fraudulently caused insolvency. Such bankrupts (rumpentes et falliti) were subjected to severe penalties, and their estates were liquidated. In addition, medieval Spanish law… Read More
civil law
In civil law: The historical rise of civil law In the Middle Ages these customs underwent vigorous growth in an effort to satisfy the complex needs stemming from the development of feudalism and chivalry, the growth of cities, Eastern colonization, increasing trade, and an increasingly refined culture. Among the many strands that went into the weaving… Read More
commercial law
In commercial transaction: Historical development In the Middle Ages the Christian church attempted to enforce certain moral commands adverse to commercial transactions. The taking of interest for loans of money was considered income without true work and therefore sinful and prohibited. There was also an attempt to generalize the idea of a… Read More
community property
In community property In the European Middle Ages, parts of Spain, France, and Germany had copartnership-in-acquisition systems, which are thought to have originated among the Germanic tribes and to have been carried to Spain and France by the Goths and Franks. The French and Spanish carried these practices to the Americas. Read More
constitutional law
In constitutional law: The nature of constitutional law In Europe during the Middle Ages, for example, the authority of political rulers did not extend to religious matters, which were strictly reserved to the jurisdiction of the church. Their powers also were limited by the rights granted to at least some classes of subjects. Disputes over the extent… Read More
coroner’s jury
In coroner’s jury …coroner’s jury, which originated in medieval England, is a disappearing form. Read More
diplomatic immunity
In diplomatic immunity During the Middle Ages in Europe, envoys and their entourages continued to enjoy the right of safe passage. A diplomat was not responsible for crimes committed before his mission, but he was answerable for any crimes committed during it. Read More
habeas corpus
In habeas corpus During the Middle Ages habeas corpus was employed to bring cases from inferior tribunals into the king’s courts. The modern history of the writ as a device for the protection of personal liberty against official authority may be said to date from the reign of Henry VII… Read More
In interdict In medieval canon law, an interdict involves the withholding of certain sacraments and clerical offices from certain persons and even territories, usually to enforce some type of obedience. The power to impose interdict on states or dioceses belongs to the pope and general councils of the… Read More
international law
In international law: Historical development In the Middle Ages, the concept of natural law, infused with religious principles through the writings of the Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides (1135–1204) and the theologian St. Thomas Aquinas (1224/25–1274), became the intellectual foundation of the new discipline of the law of nations, regarded as that part… Read More
legal profession
In legal profession: Medieval Europe This late Roman pattern of legal organization profoundly influenced the Europe that began to arise from 1000 ce after the barbarian invasions; even during the invasions the methods of Roman imperial administration never ceased to be used in some parts of southern France… Read More
maritime law
In law code During the later Middle Ages in Europe, various collections of maritime customs, drawn up for the use of merchants and lawyers, acquired great authority throughout the continent. Read More
In maritime law: Historical development …jurisprudence the transition into the Middle Ages was therefore gradual. As certain Italian cities began to outstrip the Eastern Byzantine Empire commercially, they formulated their own maritime laws, some dating as early as 1063. Trani, Amalfi, Venice, and other Italian port cities all offered their own collections of laws. Nevertheless,… Read More
procedural law
In procedural law: Medieval European law In contrast to the procedure of the late Roman Empire, which depended heavily on state officials, the procedure of the conquering Germanic tribes embodied the opposite principle—party control and broad popular participation. Because these nomadic cultures relied on lay participation, their legal… Read More
sumptuary law
In sumptuary law …countries of Europe from the Middle Ages, though with no more effectiveness than in ancient Greece or Rome. In France, Philip IV issued regulations governing the dress and the table expenditures of the several social orders in his kingdom. Under later French kings the use of gold and silver embroidery,… Read More
taxation
In taxation: Administration of taxation In the Middle Ages many of these ancient taxes, especially the direct levies, gave way to a variety of obligatory services and a system of “aids” (most of which amounted to gifts). The main indirect taxes were transit duties (a charge on goods that pass through a… Read More
