Sir Thomas Bromley, Lord Chancellor (1530-1587) (original) (raw)

| | | SIR THOMAS BROMLEY (1530-1587), lord chancellor, descended from an ancient family established since the time of King John at Bromleghe, Staffordshire. A member of this family, Roger, settled at Mitley, Shropshire, and had two sons, William and Roger. Thomas Bromley was the grandson of the former, who lived at Hodnet, Shropshire, his father's name being George, and his grandmother being Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Thomas Lacon of Willey in the same county. The family had a considerable legal turn, George Bromley being a reader at the Inner Temple during the reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII, and his brother, Sir George Bromley, chief justice of Chester under Elizabeth and father to Sir Edward Bromley, who was a judge under James I. Thomas Bromley was born in 1530. He was educated at Oxford, where he took his B.C.L. degree 21 May 1560, entered the Inner Temple, and became reader in the autumn of 1566. He was studious and regular in his conduct, and probably owed something to family influence and to the patronage of Lord-keeper Bacon. On 8 June 1566 he was elected recorder of London, and continued in that office until, in 1569 (14 March), he became solicitor-general. His first considerable case was in 1571, when he was of counsel for the crown on the trial of the Duke of Norfolk for high treason, on which occasion he had the conduct of that part of the case which rested on Rodolph's message. The other counsel for the crown were Gerrard, attorney-general, Barham, queen's Serjeant, and Wilbraham, attorney-general of the court of wards. The Earl of Shrewsburypresided, with twenty-six peers as triers and all the common-law judges as assessors. Bromley's speech came third, and certainly the mode in which the evidence was handled and the prosecution conducted throughout reflects little credit on the fairness of those who represented the crown. Yet Bromley has the reputation of having been an honourable man in his profession, and Lloyd says of him that he was scrupulous in undertaking a case unless satisfied of its justice, 'not admitting all causes promiscuously. . . but never failing in any cause. For five years he was the only person that people would employ.' 1 The duke was found guilty by a unanimous vote of the court; but so much dissatisfaction did the trial create that the execution was deferred for several months. Mary Queen of Scots, however, was much disheartened at the result, and hopes were entertained of favourable negotiations with her. Bromley was accordingly sent, fruitlessly, as it proved, to endeavour to induce her to abandon her title to the Scotch crown, and to transfer to her son all her rights to the thrones of England and Scotland. In 1574 he was treasurer of the Inner Temple. He was retained by Lord Hunsdon and patronised by Lord Burghley. For some years it was he, rather than Gerrard, the attorney-general, who was consulted on matters of state, and at last, in 1579, he received his reward. On the death of Lord-keeper Bacon there was for some time great doubt as to the appointment of a successor. Between Hilary and Easter terms, 20 Feb.-20 April, there was an interregnum of two months, during which the great seal was in no lawyer's custody, and on the seven occasions within that period on which it was used the queenissued express orders for its use each time. At last legal business was so much impeded, through the impossibility of obtaining injunctions, that Westminster Hall demanded an appointment. The queen's position was difficult. She was resolute not to appoint an ecclesiastic; it would be a scandal to make a mere politician lord chancellor, and Gerrard, long as he had been attorney-general, was, though learned, awkward and unpopular. Bromley was a politician and a man of the world, and at this juncture, by dint of intrigue, succeeded in obtaining promotion over his superior in the profession and in learning. Gerrard was afterwards consoled with the mastership of the rolls in 1581 (30 May), and on 26 April 1579 Bromley received the great seal.From his speech to the queen made on this occasion, and reported in the 'Egerton Papers'2, it would appear that he was at first lord keeper and afterwards became lord chancellor. But this is erroneous; he had the title of lord chancellor from the first. In this new position he discharged his duties to the satisfaction of the profession. Though his own practice had been chiefly in the queen's bench, his duties as solicitor-general frequently took him into chancery, and hence, though not a great founder of equity, he proved a good equity judge, and there were no complaints of his decisions; and having the good sense to pay great respect to the then very able common-law judges, and to consult them on new points, he was able to avoid conflicts between law and equity. Thus, in Shelley's case, the queen, hearing of the long argument in the queen's bench, 'of her gracious disposition,' and to end the litigation, directed Bromley, 'who was of great and profound knowledge and judgment in the law,' to assemble all the judges, and in Easter term 23 Eliz. they met at his house, York House, afterwards Serjeants' Inn, to hear the case, and his judgment has ever since remained a leading authority in real property law. 3Camden calls him 'vir jurisprudentia insignis,' and Fuller says: 'Although it was difficult to come after Sir Nicholas Bacon and not to come after him, yet such was Bromley's learning and integrity that the court was not sensible of any considerable alteration.' Knyvett's case is one which shows his fair administration of law. Knyvett, a groom of the privy chamber, had slain a man, and, the jury on the inquiry having found that it was done se defendendo, applied to Bromley for a special commission to clear him by privy session in the vacation. Bromley refused. Knyvett complained to the queen, who expressed her displeasure through Sir Christopher Hatton; whereon the chancellor, in a written statement, so completely justified himself that she afterwards expressed commendation of his conduct. Upon the project of the Alençon marriage, 'Bromley, who with Bacon's office had inherited his freedom of speech',4 offered a strong opposition, and pointed out to the queen that if she married a catholic parliament would expect her to settle the succession to the throne, and this argument seems to have prevailed with her. In 1580 he was engaged hy the queen's orders in an inquiry as to the removal of one William Crowther from the keepership of Newgate; and several letters of his are extant on the subject. When Drake returned from his second voyage in 1581, Bromley was one of those whose favour he hastened to secure with a present of wrought-gold plate, part of his Spanish spoil, of the value of eight hundred dollars. Bromley took his seat in the House of Lords on 16 Jan. 1582. The first business before the house being a petition of the commons for advice in choosing a speaker, the chancellor, the choice having fallen on Popham, the new solicitor-general, admonished him by the queen's orders 'that the House of Commons should not deal or intermeddle with any matters touching her majesty's person or estate, or with church government.' To this admonition the commons paid no attention, and accordingly, as soon as a subsidy had been voted, the session was closed, the chancellor excluding from the queen's thanks 'such members of the commons as had dealt more rashly in some matters than was fit for them to do.' Shortly afterwards this parliament was dissolved, having lasted eleven years. Bromley continued in favour, and on 26 Nov. of the same year was consulted by the queen upon the proposals made by the French ambassador. On 21 June 1585 the Earl of Northumberland, then a prisoner in the Tower, was found dead in his cell. Three days afterwards a full meeting of peers was held in the Star-chamber, and the chancellor briefly announced that the earl had been engaged in traitorous designs, and had laid violent hands on himself. A new parliament assembled on 23 Nov. 1585, and was opened with a speech from Bromley, announcing that it was summoned to consider a bill for the trial of Mary Queen of Scots. The bill soon passed. Bromley was at this time active in the prosecution of Babington. After his conviction and execution a court was constituted for Mary's trial. It consisted of forty-five peers, privy councillors, and judges, and the chancellor presided over it. It sat at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire, where Mary was imprisoned. Bromley arrived on 11 Oct. 1586, having dissolved parliament on 14 Sept. at Westminster as a commissioner, with the Archbishop of Canterbury and others. The court sat, and Mary at once placed a difficulty in the way of the prosecution by refusing to plead, 'she being a queen, and not amenable to any foreign jurisdiction.' There was then a conference between the queen and the chancellor, but at first her firmness baffled him. 'I will never submit myself,' she said,'to the late law mentioned in the commission.' She yielded to his urgency at length, and the trial proceeded.On 14 Oct. a sitting was held in the presence chamber, the lord chancellor, as president, sitting on the right of a vacant throne, and the commissioners on benches at the sides. Mary's defence was so vigorous that Burghley, in alarm, set aside Bromley and Gawdy, the queen's Serjeant, who was chief prosecutor, and himself replied. At the end of the second day the court was adjourned to 25 Oct., at the Star-chamber, Westminster, when, the chancellor presiding, the whole court—except Lord Zouch, who acquitted her on the charge of assassination—found Mary guilty. On the 29th parliament met, and the chancellor announced that they were called together to advise the queen on this verdict. The commons did not long deliberate. On 5 Nov., after electing a speaker, they agreed with the lords upon an address to the queen, to be presented by the lord chancellor, praying for Mary's execution. For some time Elizabeth hesitated, but on 1 Feb. 1587 she was induced to sign the warrant. Bromley at once affixed the great seal to it, and informed Burghley that it was now perfected. The privy council was hastily summoned, and decided to execute the warrant, the queen having done all that was required of her by law. Bromley, as head of the law, took on himself the chief burden of the responsibility; but probably he expected to shelter himself behind the authority of Burghley. It is certain that he was very anxious during the trial, and was a party to the execution of the warrant only with great apprehension. The strain proved too much for his strength. Parliament met on 15 Feb., but adjourned, owing to the chancellor's illness; and, as it continued, Sir Edmund Coke, chief justice of the common pleas, dissolved parliament on 23 March, acting for the chancellor by commission from the queen. Bromley never rallied. He died on 12 April, at three a.m., in his fifty-eighth year, and was buried with great pomp in Westminster Abbey, where a splendid tomb was erected by his eldest son. His seals were offered to, but refused by, Archbishop Whitgift. As an equity judge Bromley was regretted till the end of the reign. In spite of the temper of the age, he was free from religious bigotry, and, as a letter of his (1 July 1582) to the Bishop of Chester, pleading for Lady Egerton of Ridley, shows, he endeavoured to soften the law as to the execution of heretics. A considerable collection of his letters is preserved among the archives of the city of London. It appears from them that previously to 1580 he occupied a house near the Old Bailey. In 1580 and 1583 he had a house next Charing Cross, and at the same time a country residence in Essex. He married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Adrian Fortescue, K.B., and by her had four sons and four daughters. His eldest son was Sir Henry Bromley of Holt Castle, Worcestershire, from whose descendants the property passed to John Bromley of Horseheath Hall, Cambridgeshire, the ancestor of the now extinct barons of Montfort of Horseheath. One of Bromley's daughters, Elizabeth, was first wife to Sir Oliver Cromwell of Hinchinbrook Castle, Huntingdonshire, uncle and godfather to the Protector; another, Anne, married Richard Corbet, son of Reynold Corbet, justice of the common pleas; Muriel married John Lyttelton of Frankley, ancestor of the present Barons Lyttelton, who was implicated in Lord Essex's plot; and the fourth, Joan, married Sir Edward Greville of Milcote. Two books were dedicated to him: 'The Table to the Year-Books of Edward V,' published 1579 and 1597, and a sermon preached at St. James's, on 25 April 1580, by Bartholomew Chamberlaine, D.D., of Holiwell, Huntingdonshire, published in 1584.1. Lloyd. State Worthies, 610.2. Camden Soc., p. 823. 1 Coke, 936. link4. Froude, History of England. xi. 159. link Source: Hamilton, J. A. "Sir Thomas Bromley."Dictionary of National Biography. Vol VI. Leslie Stephen, Ed. New York: Macmillan and Co., 1886. 400-403. Other Local Resources: Queen Elizabeth I Site ©1996-2022 Anniina Jokinen. All rights reserved.This page was created on April 17, 2009. Last updated October 24, 2022. | Index of Encyclopedia Entries: Medieval Cosmology Prices of Items in Medieval EnglandEdward II Isabella of France, Queen of England Piers Gaveston Thomas of Brotherton, E. of Norfolk Edmund of Woodstock, E. of Kent Thomas, Earl of Lancaster Henry of Lancaster, Earl of Lancaster Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster Roger Mortimer, Earl of March Hugh le Despenser the Younger Bartholomew, Lord Burghersh, elder Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) Edward III Philippa of Hainault, Queen of England Edward, Black Prince of Wales John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall The Battle of Crécy, 1346 The Siege of Calais, 1346-7 The Battle of Poitiers, 1356 Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster Edmund of Langley, Duke of York Thomas of Woodstock, Gloucester Richard of York, E. of Cambridge Richard Fitzalan, 3. Earl of Arundel Roger Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March The Good Parliament, 1376 Richard II The Peasants' Revolt, 1381 Lords Appellant, 1388 Richard Fitzalan, 4. Earl of Arundel Archbishop Thomas Arundel Thomas de Beauchamp, E. Warwick Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford Ralph Neville, E. of Westmorland Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk Edmund Mortimer, 3. Earl of March Roger Mortimer, 4. Earl of March John Holland, Duke of Exeter Michael de la Pole, E. Suffolk Hugh de Stafford, 2. E. Stafford Henry IV Edward, Duke of York Edmund Mortimer, 5. Earl of March Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland Sir Henry Percy, "Harry Hotspur" Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester Owen Glendower The Battle of Shrewsbury, 1403 Archbishop Richard Scrope Thomas Mowbray, 3. E. Nottingham John Mowbray, 2. Duke of Norfolk Thomas Fitzalan, 5. Earl of Arundel Henry V Thomas, Duke of Clarence John, Duke of Bedford Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury Richard, Earl of Cambridge Henry, Baron Scrope of Masham William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk Thomas Montacute, E. Salisbury Richard Beauchamp, E. of Warwick Henry Beauchamp, Duke of Warwick Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter Cardinal Henry Beaufort John Beaufort, Earl of Somerset Sir John Fastolf John Holland, 2. Duke of Exeter Archbishop John Stafford Archbishop John Kemp Catherine of Valois Owen Tudor John Fitzalan, 7. Earl of Arundel John, Lord Tiptoft Charles VII, King of France Joan of Arc Louis XI, King of France Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy The Battle of Agincourt, 1415 The Battle of Castillon, 1453 The Wars of the Roses 1455-1485 Causes of the Wars of the Roses The House of Lancaster The House of York The House of Beaufort The House of Neville The First Battle of St. Albans, 1455 The Battle of Blore Heath, 1459 The Rout of Ludford, 1459 The Battle of Northampton, 1460 The Battle of Wakefield, 1460 The Battle of Mortimer's Cross, 1461 The 2nd Battle of St. Albans, 1461 The Battle of Towton, 1461 The Battle of Hedgeley Moor, 1464 The Battle of Hexham, 1464 The Battle of Edgecote, 1469 The Battle of Losecoat Field, 1470 The Battle of Barnet, 1471 The Battle of Tewkesbury, 1471 The Treaty of Pecquigny, 1475 The Battle of Bosworth Field, 1485 The Battle of Stoke Field, 1487 Henry VI Margaret of Anjou Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York Edward IV Elizabeth Woodville Richard Woodville, 1. Earl Rivers Anthony Woodville, 2. Earl Rivers Jane Shore Edward V Richard III George, Duke of Clarence Ralph Neville, 2. Earl of Westmorland Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick Edward Neville, Baron Bergavenny William Neville, Lord Fauconberg Robert Neville, Bishop of Salisbury John Neville, Marquis of Montagu George Neville, Archbishop of York John Beaufort, 1. Duke Somerset Edmund Beaufort, 2. Duke Somerset Henry Beaufort, 3. Duke of Somerset Edmund Beaufort, 4. Duke Somerset Margaret Beaufort Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke Humphrey Stafford, D. Buckingham Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham Humphrey Stafford, E. of Devon Thomas, Lord Stanley, Earl of Derby Sir William Stanley Archbishop Thomas Bourchier Henry Bourchier, Earl of Essex John Mowbray, 3. Duke of Norfolk John Mowbray, 4. Duke of Norfolk John Howard, Duke of Norfolk Henry Percy, 2. E. Northumberland Henry Percy, 3. E. Northumberland Henry Percy, 4. E. Northumberland William, Lord Hastings Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter William Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel William Herbert, 1. Earl of Pembroke John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford Thomas de Clifford, 8. Baron Clifford John de Clifford, 9. Baron Clifford John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester Thomas Grey, 1. Marquis Dorset Sir Andrew Trollop Archbishop John Morton Edward Plantagenet, E. of Warwick John Talbot, 2. E. Shrewsbury John Talbot, 3. E. Shrewsbury John de la Pole, 2. Duke of Suffolk John de la Pole, E. of Lincoln Edmund de la Pole, E. of Suffolk Richard de la Pole John Sutton, Baron Dudley James Butler, 5. Earl of Ormonde Sir James Tyrell Edmund Grey, first Earl of Kent George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent John, 5th Baron Scrope of Bolton James Touchet, 7th Baron Audley Walter Blount, Lord Mountjoy Robert Hungerford, Lord Moleyns Thomas, Lord Scales John, Lord Lovel and Holand Francis Lovell, Viscount Lovell Sir Richard Ratcliffe William Catesby Ralph, 4th Lord Cromwell Jack Cade's Rebellion, 1450 Tudor Period King Henry VII Queen Elizabeth of York Arthur, Prince of Wales Lambert Simnel Perkin Warbeck The Battle of Blackheath, 1497 King Ferdinand II of Aragon Queen Isabella of Castile Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor King Henry VIII Queen Catherine of Aragon Queen Anne Boleyn Queen Jane Seymour Queen Anne of Cleves Queen Catherine Howard Queen Katherine Parr King Edward VI Queen Mary I Queen Elizabeth I Henry Fitzroy, Duke of Richmond Margaret Tudor, Queen of Scotland James IV, King of Scotland The Battle of Flodden Field, 1513 James V, King of Scotland Mary of Guise, Queen of Scotland Mary Tudor, Queen of France Louis XII, King of France Francis I, King of France The Battle of the Spurs, 1513 Field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Eustace Chapuys, Imperial Ambassador The Siege of Boulogne, 1544 Cardinal Thomas Wolsey Archbishop Thomas Cranmer Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex Thomas, Lord Audley Thomas Wriothesley, E. Southampton Sir Richard Rich Edward Stafford, D. of Buckingham Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk Thomas Boleyn, Earl of Wiltshire George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford John Russell, Earl of Bedford Thomas Grey, 2. Marquis of Dorset Henry Grey, D. of Suffolk Charles Somerset, Earl of Worcester George Talbot, 4. E. Shrewsbury Francis Talbot, 5. E. Shrewsbury Henry Algernon Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland Henry Algernon Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland Ralph Neville, 4. E. Westmorland Henry Neville, 5. E. Westmorland William Paulet, Marquis of Winchester Sir Francis Bryan Sir Nicholas Carew John de Vere, 15th Earl of Oxford John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford Thomas Seymour, Lord Admiral Edward Seymour, Protector Somerset Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury Henry Pole, Lord Montague Sir Geoffrey Pole Thomas Manners, Earl of Rutland Henry Manners, Earl of Rutland Henry Bourchier, 2. Earl of Essex Robert Radcliffe, 1. Earl of Sussex Henry Radcliffe, 2. Earl of Sussex George Hastings, Earl of Huntingdon Henry Courtenay, Marquis of Exeter George Neville, Baron Bergavenny Sir Edward Neville William, Lord Paget William Sandys, Baron Sandys William Fitzwilliam, E. Southampton Sir Anthony Browne Sir Thomas Wriothesley Sir William Kingston George Brooke, Lord Cobham Sir Richard Southwell Thomas Fiennes, 9th Lord Dacre Sir Francis Weston Henry Norris Lady Jane Grey Sir Thomas Arundel Sir Richard Sackville Sir William Petre Sir John Cheke Walter Haddon, L.L.D Sir Peter Carew Sir John Mason Nicholas Wotton John Taylor Sir Thomas Wyatt, the Younger Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio Cardinal Reginald Pole Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester Edmund Bonner, Bishop of London Nicholas Ridley, Bishop of London John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester John Aylmer, Bishop of London Thomas Linacre William Grocyn Archbishop William Warham Cuthbert Tunstall, Bishop of Durham Richard Fox, Bishop of Winchester Edward Fox, Bishop of Hereford Pope Julius II Pope Leo X Pope Clement VII Pope Paul III Pope Pius V Pico della Mirandola Desiderius Erasmus Martin Bucer Richard Pace Christopher Saint-German Thomas Tallis Elizabeth Barton, the Nun of Kent Hans Holbein, the Younger The Sweating Sickness Dissolution of the Monasteries Pilgrimage of Grace, 1536 Robert Aske Anne Askew Lord Thomas Darcy Sir Robert Constable Oath of Supremacy The Act of Supremacy, 1534 The First Act of Succession, 1534 The Third Act of Succession, 1544 The Ten Articles, 1536 The Six Articles, 1539 The Second Statute of Repeal, 1555 The Act of Supremacy, 1559 Articles Touching Preachers, 1583 Queen Elizabeth I William Cecil, Lord Burghley Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury Sir Francis Walsingham Sir Nicholas Bacon Sir Thomas Bromley Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick Henry Carey, Lord Hunsdon Sir Thomas Egerton, Viscount Brackley Sir Francis Knollys Katherine "Kat" Ashley Lettice Knollys, Countess of Leicester George Talbot, 6. E. of Shrewsbury Elizabeth, Countess of Shrewsbury Gilbert Talbot, 7. E. of Shrewsbury Sir Henry Sidney Sir Robert Sidney Archbishop Matthew Parker Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex Penelope Devereux, Lady Rich Sir Christopher Hatton Edward Courtenay, E. Devonshire Edward Manners, 3rd Earl of Rutland Thomas Radcliffe, 3. Earl of Sussex Henry Radcliffe, 4. Earl of Sussex Robert Radcliffe, 5. Earl of Sussex William Parr, Marquis of Northampton Henry Wriothesley, 2. Southampton Henry Wriothesley, 3. Southampton Charles Neville, 6. E. Westmorland Thomas Percy, 7. E. Northumberland Henry Percy, 8. E. Northumberland Henry Percy, 9. E. Nothumberland William Herbert, 1. Earl of Pembroke Charles, Lord Howard of Effingham Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk Henry Howard, 1. Earl of Northampton Thomas Howard, 1. Earl of Suffolk Henry Hastings, 3. E. of Huntingdon Edward Manners, 3rd Earl of Rutland Roger Manners, 5th Earl of Rutland Francis Manners, 6th Earl of Rutland Henry FitzAlan, 12. Earl of Arundel Thomas, Earl Arundell of Wardour Edward Somerset, E. of Worcester William Davison Sir Walter Mildmay Sir Ralph Sadler Sir Amyas Paulet Gilbert Gifford Anthony Browne, Viscount Montague François, Duke of Alençon & Anjou Mary, Queen of Scots Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell Anthony Babington and the Babington Plot John Knox Philip II of Spain The Spanish Armada, 1588 Sir Francis Drake Sir John Hawkins William Camden Archbishop Whitgift Martin Marprelate Controversy John Penry (Martin Marprelate) Richard Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury John Dee, Alchemist Philip Henslowe Edward Alleyn The Blackfriars Theatre The Fortune Theatre The Rose Theatre The Swan Theatre Children's Companies The Admiral's Men The Lord Chamberlain's Men Citizen Comedy The Isle of Dogs, 1597 Common Law Court of Common Pleas Court of King's Bench Court of Star Chamber Council of the North Fleet Prison Assize Attainder First Fruits & Tenths Livery and Maintenance Oyer and terminer Praemunire The Stuarts King James I of England Anne of Denmark Henry, Prince of Wales The Gunpowder Plot, 1605 George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset Arabella Stuart, Lady Lennox William Alabaster Bishop Hall Bishop Thomas Morton Archbishop William Laud John Selden Lucy Harington, Countess of Bedford Henry Lawes King Charles I Queen Henrietta Maria Long Parliament Rump Parliament Kentish Petition, 1642 Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford John Digby, Earl of Bristol George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax Robert Devereux, 3rd E. of Essex Robert Sidney, 2. E. of Leicester Algernon Percy, E. of Northumberland Henry Montagu, Earl of Manchester Edward Montagu, 2. Earl of Manchester The Restoration King Charles II King James II Test Acts Greenwich Palace Hatfield House Richmond Palace Windsor Palace Woodstock Manor The Cinque Ports Mermaid Tavern Malmsey Wine Great Fire of London, 1666 Merchant Taylors' School Westminster School The Sanctuary at Westminster "Sanctuary" Images: Chart of the English Succession from William I through Henry VII Medieval English Drama London c1480, MS Royal 16 London, 1510, the earliest view in print Map of England from Saxton's Descriptio Angliae, 1579 London in late 16th century Location Map of Elizabethan London Plan of the Bankside, Southwark, in Shakespeare's time Detail of Norden's Map of the Bankside, 1593 Bull and Bear Baiting Rings from the Agas Map (1569-1590, pub. 1631) Sketch of the Swan Theatre, c. 1596 Westminster in the Seventeenth Century, by Hollar Visscher's View of London, 1616 Larger Visscher's View in Sections c. 1690. View of London Churches, after the Great Fire The Yard of the Tabard Inn from Thornbury, Old and New London | | - | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |