Cuthbert Tunstall, Bishop of Durham (1474-1559) [Tunstal, Tonstall] (original) (raw)

| | | CUTHBERT TUNSTALL or TONSTALL, Master of the Rolls, and bishop successively of London and Durham, born in 1474, was the eldest and illegitimate son of Thomas Tunstall of Thurland Castle, Lancashire. The family had long been settled at Thurland Castle, which Cuthbert's grandfather, Sir Richard Tunstall, had lost by attainder in 1460 in consequence of his Lancastrian sympathies.1 Cuthbert's mother is said to have been a member of the Conyers family.2 He was born at Hackforth in the North Riding of Yorkshire, a parish in which the Tunstalls held land of Sir John Conyers.3 His eldest surviving legitimate brother, Brian Tunstall, a noted soldier, inherited Thurland Castle, and was killed at Flodden Field on 9 Sept. 1513. He made Cuthbert supervisor of his will and guardian of his son Marmaduke, an arrangement which was confirmed by Henry VIII on 1 Aug. 1514.4Cuthbert was said by George Holland in 1563 to have been 'in his youth near two years brought up in my great-grandfather Sir Thomas Holland's kitchen unknown, till being known he was sent home to Sir Richard Tunstall his father [sic], and so kept at school, as he himself declared in manner the same to me.'5 About 1491 he entered Oxford University, matriculating, it is said, from Balliol College. An outbreak of the plague compelled him to leave, and he removed to King's Hall (afterwards merged in Trinity College), Cambridge. Subsequently he graduated LL.D. at Padua. He acquired, besides the ordinary scholastic and theological accomplishments, familiarity with Greek, Hebrew, mathematics, and civil law. Erasmusmentioned him as one of the men who did credit to Henry's court, and he enjoyed the friendship of Warham, More, and other leaders of the renascence in England, as well as of foreign scholars like Beatus Rhenanus and Budaeus.6After his return to England, Tunstall was on 26 Dec. 1506 presented to the rectory of Barmston in Yorkshire, but he was not ordained subdeacon until 24 March 1509. He resigned Barmston before 26 March 1507, and in 1508 was collated to the rectory of Stanhope in the county of Durham. He also held the living of Aldridge in Staffordshire, which he resigned in 1509, being in that year collated to the rectory of Steeple Langford, Wiltshire.7 On 26 Aug. 1511 Archbishop Warhamappointed Tunstall his chancellor, and on 16 Dec. following gave him the rectory of Harrow-on-the-Hill. Warham also introduced him at court, and from this time his rise was rapid. On 15 April 1514 he received the prebend of Stow Longa, Lincoln Cathedral, in succession to Wolsey, and on 17 Nov. 1515 was admitted archdeacon of Chester. On 7 May he had been appointed ambassador at Brussels to Charles, prince of Castile [later Charles V], to negotiate a continuance of the treaties made between Henry VIII and Philip, late king of Castile.8 He was also instructed to prevent Charles from forming a treaty with France, and these diplomatic tasks detained him most of the following year in the Netherlands.9 During his residence at Brussels he lodged with Erasmus; but his mission was unsuccessful, and, according to his colleague, Sir Thomas More, not much to his taste.10On 12 May 1516 he was made master of the rolls. On 15 Oct. 1518 he was present at Greenwich at the betrothal of the king's daughter Mary to the dauphin of France, and delivered an oration in praise of matrimony, which was printed by Pynson in the same year as 'C. Tonstalli in Laudem Matrimonii Oratio,' London, 4to; a second edition was printed at Basle in 1519. In the latter year Tunstall became prebendary of Botevant in York Cathedral, and was again sent as ambassador to Charles V's court at Cologne. He returned to England in August 1520, but left again in September, and was at Worms during the winter of 1520-1. In his letters he gave an account of the spread of Lutheranism in Germany, and he earnestly urged Erasmus to write against that heresy.11 He returned to England in April, and in May was appointed dean of Salisbury, receiving about the same time the prebends of Combe and Hornham in that cathedral. In 1522 he was papally provided to the bishopric of London, the temporalities being restored on 5 July. On 25 May 1523 he was appointed keeper of the privy seal, and he delivered the king's speech at the opening of parliament in that year.In April 1525 Tunstall was once more appointed ambassador, with Sir Richard Wingfield, to Charles V.12He left Cowes on 18 April, and reached Toledo on 24 May. Francis I had been captured at Pavia, and Tunstall was entrusted with a proposal for the dismemberment of France and the exclusion of Francis I and his son from the French throne. It is, however, doubtful whether Wolsey was in earnest, and Charles V was not in the least likely to fall in with these schemes. He was equally reluctant to carry out his engagement to marry the Princess Mary, and as a result Wolsey accepted the French offers of peace. Tunstall returned to England through France in January 1526. Later in the year he was engaged in a visitation of his diocese, and his prohibition of Simon Fish's 'Supplication for the Beggars,' Tyndale's 'New Testament,' and other heretical books, is printed in 'Four Supplications'.13 In 1527 he accompanied Wolsey on his embassy to France, and in the following years was one of the plenipotiaries who negotiated the famous treaty of Cambray.14In the divorce question, which now became acute, Tunstall was said to have been one of those who would have been entirely on the emperor's side had it not been for Wolsey's influence, and Catherine chose him as one of her counsel; but he used his influence to dissuade her from appealing to Rome. On 21 Feb. 1529-30 he was papally provided to the bishopric of Durham in succession to Wolsey, who had held the see in commendam with the archbishopric of York. Temporary custody of the temporalities was granted him on 4 Feb., and plenary restitution was made on 26 March; he was succeeded in the bishopric of London by his friend and ally, John Stokesley. Throughout the ensuing ecclesiastical revolution Tunstall's attitude was one of 'invincible moderation.' He retained till his death unshaken belief in catholic dogma, and he opposed with varying resolution all measures calculated to destroy it; but at the same time he seems to have believed in 'passive obedience' to the civil power, and even under Edward VI carried out ecclesiastical changes when sanctioned by parliament which he opposed before their enactment. Thus he protested against Henry VIII's assumption of the title of 'supreme head' even with the saving clause about the rights of the church, 15 but he subsequently adopted it without reservation, remonstrated with Cardinal Poleon his attitude towards the royal supremacy, preached against the pope's authority in his diocese, and was selected to preach an Quinquagesima Sunday 1536 before four Carthusian monks condemned to death for refusing the oath of supremacy.16 He maintained it also in a sermon preached before the king on Palm Sunday 1539, which was published by Berthelet in the same year (London, 8vo), and reissued in 1533 (London, 4to). Tunstall's acquiescence in this and the other measures which completed the severance between the English church and Rome was of material service to Henry VIII, for, after the death of Warham and Fisher, Tunstall was beyond doubt the most widely respected of English bishops. Pole wrote in 1536 to Giberti that Tunstall was then considered the greatest of English scholars.17 His influence was, however, occasionally feared by Henry, and previous to the parliament of 1536 which sanctioned the dissolution of the lesser monasteries, Tunstall was prevented from attending it, first by a letter from Henry excusing him from being present on account of his age, and secondly, when Tunstall was already near London, by a peremptory order from Cromwell to return.18In 1537 Tunstall was provided with a fresh field of activity by being appointed president of the newly created council of the north,19 and his voluminous correspondence in this capacity is now in the British Museum (Addit. MSS. 32647-32648). He was frequently appointed on commissions to treat with the Scots, and acted generally as experienced adviser to the successive lieutenant-generals appointed by Henry to defend the borders or invade Scotland. He continued, however, to take an active part in religious matters, and in 1537 he, as one of the commissioners appointed to draw up the 'Institution of a Christian Man,' endeavoured to make it as catholic in tone as possible. In 1538 he examined John Lambert (d. 1538) on the corporeal presence in the eucharist, and in the following year he submitted to Henry arguments in favour of auricular confession as of divine origin.20He attended the parliament of that year, which passed the act of six articles, asserting among other dogmas that, auricular confession was 'agreeable to the word of God,' and in 1541 was published the 'great bible' in English, which was 'overseene and perused' by Tunstall and Nicholas Heath. For the next few years Tunstall was chiefly occupied on the borders; in 1544 he was stationed at Newcastle during Hertford's invasion of Scotland. In November 1546 he was commissioned to negotiate peace with France,21 and in the following June was again sent to France to receive the ratification of the treaty of Ardres.22 He returned in August, and attended the parliament that was sitting when Henry VIII died on 28 Jan. 1546-7.During Edward VI's reign Tunstall's position became increasingly difficult, but his friendly relations with Somerset and Cranmer, combined with his own moderation, saved him at first from the consequences of his antipathy to their religious policy. He had been appointed by Henry VIII one of the executors to his will, concurred in the elevation of Somerset to the protectorate, and officiated at Edward VI's coronation (20 Feb. 1546-7). He took, however, no part in the deprivation of Lord-chancellor Wriothesley, the leading catholic in the council, and, though he was included in the privy council as reconstituted in March, he does not seem to have abetted the measures by which Somerset rendered himself independent of its authority. He attended various meetings of the council until illness incapacitated him, and on 12 April he was directed, owing to news of the aggressive designs of the new French king, Henry II, to proceed to the borders and take up his duties as president of the council of the north.23 During the summer he was busily engaged in putting the borders in a state of defence and in making preparations for Somerset's invasion. On 8 July, as a last effort for peace, he was commissioned to meet the Scots' envoys at Berwick; but they failed to appear, and the Scots' attack on Langholm caused the council to revoke Tunstall's commission.24Tunstall's compliance with the ecclesiastical proceedings of the council provoked a complaint from Gardinerin the spring of 1547, but in the parliament which met in November he voted against both the bills for the abolition of chantries.25He seems, however, to have acquiesced in a bill 'for the administration of the sacrament.' He was not included in the famous Windsor commission appointed in the following year to amend the offices of the church, and in the parliament of November he took a prominent part on the catholic side in the debates on the sacrament and on the ritual recommendations of the commission.26 He voted against the act of uniformity and the act enabling priests to marry.27 Nevertheless, after the act of uniformity had been passed, Tunstall enforced its provisions in his diocese. He took no part in the overthrow of Somersetin October 1549, but attended parliament in the following November, and sat on a committee of the House of Lords appointed to devise a measure for the restoration of episcopal authority. He also attended the privy council from December to February 1549-50, and on 5 March was directed to repair to Berwick in view of a threatened Scottish invasion.28But the hope that the catholics who had aided Warwick in the deposition of Somerset would be able to reverse his religious policy proved vain, and Tunstall, like the other catholics, soon found himself in a difficult position. In September 1550 be was accused by Ninian Menvile, a Scot, of encouraging a rebellion in the north and a Scottish invasion. The precise nature of the accusation never transpired, and it is probable that the real causes of the proceedings against him were his friendship for Somerset, sympathy with his endeavours to check Warwick's persecution of the catholics, and Warwick's plans for dissolving the bishopric of Durham and erecting on its ruins an impregnable position for himself on the borders. On 15 May 1551 he was summoned to London,29 and on the 20th was confined to his house 'by Coldharbor in Thames Streete.'30 During his enforced leisure he composed his 'De Veritate Corporis et Sanguinis Domini nostri Jesu Christ in Eucharistia,'perhaps the best contemporary statement of the catholic doctrine of the eucharist. It was completed in 1551, the author being then, as he states, in his seventy-seventh year. Canon Dixon asserts that it was published in the same year, but the fact is extremely improbable, and no copy of such an edition has heen traced. The first known edition was issued at Paris in 1554; a second edition appeared at Paris in the same year.On 6 Oct. 1551 Cecil and Sir John Mason were directed to examine Tunstall, probably with the object of obtaining evidence against Somerset, whose arrest had already been arranged. Nothing resulted from the inquiry, but some weeks later a letter from Tunstall to Ninian Menvile, containing, it is said, the requisite evidence of his treason, was found in a casket belonging to Somerset. On 20 Dec. he was consequently removed to the Tower, and Northumberland determined to proceed against him in the approaching session of parliament. On 28 March 1552 a bill for his deprivation was introduced into the House of Lords; it passed its third reading, and was sent down to the commons on the 3lst. There, being described as 'a bill against the bishop of Durham for misprision of treason,' it was read a first time on 4 April. But, in spite of Northumberland's elaborate efforts to pack it, the House of Commons showed many signs of independence, and before proceeding further demanded the attendance of the bishop 'and his accessories.' This was apparently refused, and the bill fell through. Tunstall, was, however, detained in the Tower, and subsequently in the king's bench prison, and on 21 Sept. 1552 the chief justice and other laymen were commissioned to try him. He was tried at the Whitefriars on Tower Hill on 4 and 5 Oct., and deprived on the 14th of his bishopric, which was dissolved by act of parliament in March 1552-3. Queen Mary's accession was followed on 6 Aug. 1553 by Tunstall's release from the king's bench; an act of parliament was passed in April 1554 re-establishing the bishopric of Durham, and declaring that its suppression had been brought about by 'the sinister labour, great malice, and corrupt means of certain ambitious persons being then in authority.' Tunstall was restored to it, and was himself placed on commissions for depriving Holgate, Ferrar, Taylor, Hooper, Harley, and other bishops. He also sought to convert various prisoners in the Tower condemned to death for heresy, but he refused the request of Cranmer, who had studied Tunstall's book, 'De Veritate Corporis,' in prison, to confer with him, saying that Cranmer was more likely to shake him than be convinced by him. He took part in the reception of Cardinal Pole on 24 Nov. 1554, but he refrained as far as possible from persecuting the protestants, and condemned none of them to death.Immediately after her accession Elizabeth wrote to Tunstall on 19 Dec. 1558, dispensing with his services in parliament and at her coronation. He refused to take the oath of supremacy, and was summoned to London, where he arrived on 20 July 1559, lodging 'with one Dolman, a tallow chandler in Southwark.'31On 19 Aug. he wrote to Cecil, saying he could not consent to the visitation of his diocese if it extended to pulling down altars, defacing churches, and taking away crucifixes; but on 9 Sept. he was ordered to consecrate Matthew Parker as archbishop of Canterbury. Ho refused, and on the 28th he was deprived, in order, says Machyn, that 'he should not reseyff the rentes for that quarter.'32 He was committed to the custody of Parker, who treated him with every consideration at Lambeth Palace. He died there on 18 Nov., and was buried in the palace chapel on the following day. A memorial inscription, composed by Walter Haddon, is printed in Stow's' Survey' (ed. Strype, App. i. 85) and in Ducarel's ' Lambeth' (App., p. 40). A portrait of Tunstall was lent in 1868 by Mr. J. Darcy Hutton to the National Art Exhibition at Leeds.33 An engraving by Fourdrinier is given in Fiddes's 'Life of Wolsey.'Tunstall's long career of eighty-five years, for thirty-seven of which he was a bishop, is one of the most consistent and honourable in the sixteenth century. The extent of the religious revolution under Edward VI caused him to reverse his views on the royal supremacy, and he refused to change them again under Elizabeth. His dislike of persecution is illustrated by his conduct in 1527, when he put himself to considerable expense to buy up and burn all available copies of Tyndale's Testament, in order to avoid the necessity of burning heretics. In Mary's reign he dismissed a protestant preacher with the words, 'Hitherto we have had a good report among our neighbours; I pray you bring not this poor man's blood upon my head.'1. Calendar of Patent Rolls, Edward IV, i. 333, 422 sqq.2. Leland, Itinerary, iv. 17; Surtees, Durham, vol. i. p. lxvi; Whitaker, Richmondshire, ii. 271-4, where the inconsistencies of various Tunstall pedigrees are discussed; Wills of the Archdeaconry of Richmond, Surtees Soc. p. 288.3. Calendar of Inquisitions post mortem, Henry VII, i. No. 675.4. Brian's will printed in Whitaker, Richmondshire, ii. 273; cf. Letters and Papers of Henry VIII, vol. i. No. 6288.5. Blomefield, Norfolk, i. 232.6. See Erasmus, Epistolae, 1642, pt. i. cols. 27, 120, 148, 172, 173, 400, 582, 783, 1158, 1509.7. Letters and Papers, Henry VIII, i. 1007, p. 150. [link]8. ib. ii. 422. [link]9. ib. vol. ii. passim; Brewer, History, i. 65 et sqq.10. More to Erasmus, Epistolae, ii. 16.11. ib. i. col. 759.12. Stowe MS. 147, ff. 67, 86.13. 'Four Supplications', Early English Text Soc. pp. x-xi. [link]14. Letters and Papers, vol. iv. pt. iii. passim.15. Wilkins, Concilia, vol. iii.; cf. Stowe MS. 141, f.36.16. Wriothesley, A Chronicle of England, i. 34. [link]17. Cal. State Papers, Venetian, 1534-54, No. 116.18. Gasquet, Henry VIII and the English Monasteries, i. 151, 294.19. State Papers, i. 554.20. The manuscript, with criticisms on the margin in Henry's own hand, is extant in Cottonian MS. Cleopatra E, v. 125.21. State Papers, x. 588.22. ib.; Correspondance Politique de Odet de Selve, pp. 3-6. [link]23. Acts of the Privy Council, ed. Dasent, ii. 475. [link]24. ib. ii. 515; Selve, pp. 160, 163.25. Lords' Journals, 15 and 23 Dec. 1547.26. Royal MS. 17 B. xxix; Gasquet and Bishop, Edward VI and the Book of Common Prayer. [link27. Lords' Journals, 15 Jan. and 19 Feb. 1548-9.28. Acts of the Privy Council, ed. Dasent, ii. 406. [link]29. Calendar of State Papers, Dom. 1547-80, p. 33.30. Acts P.C. iii. 277; Wriothesley, ii. 65. [link]31. The Diary of Henry Machyn, 1843, p. 204. [link]32. ib., p. 214. [link]33. Thornbury, Yorkshire Worthies, 1868, p. 4. Excerpted from:Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. XIX. Sidney Lee, ed. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1909. 1237-41. to Luminarium Encyclopedia Site ©1996-2023 Anniina Jokinen. All rights reserved.This page was created on April 8, 2010. Last updated February 24, 2023. | Index of Encyclopedia Entries: Medieval Cosmology Prices of Items in Medieval EnglandEdward II Isabella of France, Queen of England Piers Gaveston Thomas of Brotherton, E. of Norfolk Edmund of Woodstock, E. of Kent Thomas, Earl of Lancaster Henry of Lancaster, Earl of Lancaster Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster Roger Mortimer, Earl of March Hugh le Despenser the Younger Bartholomew, Lord Burghersh, elder Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) Edward III Philippa of Hainault, Queen of England Edward, Black Prince of Wales John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall The Battle of Crécy, 1346 The Siege of Calais, 1346-7 The Battle of Poitiers, 1356 Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster Edmund of Langley, Duke of York Thomas of Woodstock, Gloucester Richard of York, E. of Cambridge Richard Fitzalan, 3. Earl of Arundel Roger Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March The Good Parliament, 1376 Richard II The Peasants' Revolt, 1381 Lords Appellant, 1388 Richard Fitzalan, 4. Earl of Arundel Archbishop Thomas Arundel Thomas de Beauchamp, E. Warwick Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford Ralph Neville, E. of Westmorland Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk Edmund Mortimer, 3. Earl of March Roger Mortimer, 4. Earl of March John Holland, Duke of Exeter Michael de la Pole, E. Suffolk Hugh de Stafford, 2. E. Stafford Henry IV Edward, Duke of York Edmund Mortimer, 5. Earl of March Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland Sir Henry Percy, "Harry Hotspur" Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester Owen Glendower The Battle of Shrewsbury, 1403 Archbishop Richard Scrope Thomas Mowbray, 3. E. Nottingham John Mowbray, 2. Duke of Norfolk Thomas Fitzalan, 5. Earl of Arundel Henry V Thomas, Duke of Clarence John, Duke of Bedford Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury Richard, Earl of Cambridge Henry, Baron Scrope of Masham William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk Thomas Montacute, E. Salisbury Richard Beauchamp, E. of Warwick Henry Beauchamp, Duke of Warwick Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter Cardinal Henry Beaufort John Beaufort, Earl of Somerset Sir John Fastolf John Holland, 2. Duke of Exeter Archbishop John Stafford Archbishop John Kemp Catherine of Valois Owen Tudor John Fitzalan, 7. Earl of Arundel John, Lord Tiptoft Charles VII, King of France Joan of Arc Louis XI, King of France Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy The Battle of Agincourt, 1415 The Battle of Castillon, 1453 The Wars of the Roses 1455-1485 Causes of the Wars of the Roses The House of Lancaster The House of York The House of Beaufort The House of Neville The First Battle of St. Albans, 1455 The Battle of Blore Heath, 1459 The Rout of Ludford, 1459 The Battle of Northampton, 1460 The Battle of Wakefield, 1460 The Battle of Mortimer's Cross, 1461 The 2nd Battle of St. Albans, 1461 The Battle of Towton, 1461 The Battle of Hedgeley Moor, 1464 The Battle of Hexham, 1464 The Battle of Edgecote, 1469 The Battle of Losecoat Field, 1470 The Battle of Barnet, 1471 The Battle of Tewkesbury, 1471 The Treaty of Pecquigny, 1475 The Battle of Bosworth Field, 1485 The Battle of Stoke Field, 1487 Henry VI Margaret of Anjou Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York Edward IV Elizabeth Woodville Richard Woodville, 1. Earl Rivers Anthony Woodville, 2. Earl Rivers Jane Shore Edward V Richard III George, Duke of Clarence Ralph Neville, 2. Earl of Westmorland Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick Edward Neville, Baron Bergavenny William Neville, Lord Fauconberg Robert Neville, Bishop of Salisbury John Neville, Marquis of Montagu George Neville, Archbishop of York John Beaufort, 1. Duke Somerset Edmund Beaufort, 2. Duke Somerset Henry Beaufort, 3. Duke of Somerset Edmund Beaufort, 4. Duke Somerset Margaret Beaufort Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke Humphrey Stafford, D. Buckingham Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham Humphrey Stafford, E. of Devon Thomas, Lord Stanley, Earl of Derby Sir William Stanley Archbishop Thomas Bourchier Henry Bourchier, Earl of Essex John Mowbray, 3. Duke of Norfolk John Mowbray, 4. Duke of Norfolk John Howard, Duke of Norfolk Henry Percy, 2. E. Northumberland Henry Percy, 3. E. Northumberland Henry Percy, 4. E. Northumberland William, Lord Hastings Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter William Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel William Herbert, 1. Earl of Pembroke John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford Thomas de Clifford, 8. Baron Clifford John de Clifford, 9. Baron Clifford John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester Thomas Grey, 1. Marquis Dorset Sir Andrew Trollop Archbishop John Morton Edward Plantagenet, E. of Warwick John Talbot, 2. E. Shrewsbury John Talbot, 3. E. Shrewsbury John de la Pole, 2. Duke of Suffolk John de la Pole, E. of Lincoln Edmund de la Pole, E. of Suffolk Richard de la Pole John Sutton, Baron Dudley James Butler, 5. Earl of Ormonde Sir James Tyrell Edmund Grey, first Earl of Kent George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent John, 5th Baron Scrope of Bolton James Touchet, 7th Baron Audley Walter Blount, Lord Mountjoy Robert Hungerford, Lord Moleyns Thomas, Lord Scales John, Lord Lovel and Holand Francis Lovell, Viscount Lovell Sir Richard Ratcliffe William Catesby Ralph, 4th Lord Cromwell Jack Cade's Rebellion, 1450 Tudor Period King Henry VII Queen Elizabeth of York Arthur, Prince of Wales Lambert Simnel Perkin Warbeck The Battle of Blackheath, 1497 King Ferdinand II of Aragon Queen Isabella of Castile Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor King Henry VIII Queen Catherine of Aragon Queen Anne Boleyn Queen Jane Seymour Queen Anne of Cleves Queen Catherine Howard Queen Katherine Parr King Edward VI Queen Mary I Queen Elizabeth I Henry Fitzroy, Duke of Richmond Margaret Tudor, Queen of Scotland James IV, King of Scotland The Battle of Flodden Field, 1513 James V, King of Scotland Mary of Guise, Queen of Scotland Mary Tudor, Queen of France Louis XII, King of France Francis I, King of France The Battle of the Spurs, 1513 Field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Eustace Chapuys, Imperial Ambassador The Siege of Boulogne, 1544 Cardinal Thomas Wolsey Archbishop Thomas Cranmer Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex Thomas, Lord Audley Thomas Wriothesley, E. Southampton Sir Richard Rich Edward Stafford, D. of Buckingham Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk Thomas Boleyn, Earl of Wiltshire George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford John Russell, Earl of Bedford Thomas Grey, 2. Marquis of Dorset Henry Grey, D. of Suffolk Charles Somerset, Earl of Worcester George Talbot, 4. E. Shrewsbury Francis Talbot, 5. E. Shrewsbury Henry Algernon Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland Henry Algernon Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland Ralph Neville, 4. E. Westmorland Henry Neville, 5. E. Westmorland William Paulet, Marquis of Winchester Sir Francis Bryan Sir Nicholas Carew John de Vere, 15th Earl of Oxford John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford Thomas Seymour, Lord Admiral Edward Seymour, Protector Somerset Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury Henry Pole, Lord Montague Sir Geoffrey Pole Thomas Manners, Earl of Rutland Henry Manners, Earl of Rutland Henry Bourchier, 2. Earl of Essex Robert Radcliffe, 1. Earl of Sussex Henry Radcliffe, 2. Earl of Sussex George Hastings, Earl of Huntingdon Henry Courtenay, Marquis of Exeter George Neville, Baron Bergavenny Sir Edward Neville William, Lord Paget William Sandys, Baron Sandys William Fitzwilliam, E. Southampton Sir Anthony Browne Sir Thomas Wriothesley Sir William Kingston George Brooke, Lord Cobham Sir Richard Southwell Thomas Fiennes, 9th Lord Dacre Sir Francis Weston Henry Norris Lady Jane Grey Sir Thomas Arundel Sir Richard Sackville Sir William Petre Sir John Cheke Walter Haddon, L.L.D Sir Peter Carew Sir John Mason Nicholas Wotton John Taylor Sir Thomas Wyatt, the Younger Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio Cardinal Reginald Pole Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester Edmund Bonner, Bishop of London Nicholas Ridley, Bishop of London John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester John Aylmer, Bishop of London Thomas Linacre William Grocyn Archbishop William Warham Cuthbert Tunstall, Bishop of Durham Richard Fox, Bishop of Winchester Edward Fox, Bishop of Hereford Pope Julius II Pope Leo X Pope Clement VII Pope Paul III Pope Pius V Pico della Mirandola Desiderius Erasmus Martin Bucer Richard Pace Christopher Saint-German Thomas Tallis Elizabeth Barton, the Nun of Kent Hans Holbein, the Younger The Sweating Sickness Dissolution of the Monasteries Pilgrimage of Grace, 1536 Robert Aske Anne Askew Lord Thomas Darcy Sir Robert Constable Oath of Supremacy The Act of Supremacy, 1534 The First Act of Succession, 1534 The Third Act of Succession, 1544 The Ten Articles, 1536 The Six Articles, 1539 The Second Statute of Repeal, 1555 The Act of Supremacy, 1559 Articles Touching Preachers, 1583 Queen Elizabeth I William Cecil, Lord Burghley Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury Sir Francis Walsingham Sir Nicholas Bacon Sir Thomas Bromley Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick Henry Carey, Lord Hunsdon Sir Thomas Egerton, Viscount Brackley Sir Francis Knollys Katherine "Kat" Ashley Lettice Knollys, Countess of Leicester George Talbot, 6. E. of Shrewsbury Elizabeth, Countess of Shrewsbury Gilbert Talbot, 7. E. of Shrewsbury Sir Henry Sidney Sir Robert Sidney Archbishop Matthew Parker Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex Penelope Devereux, Lady Rich Sir Christopher Hatton Edward Courtenay, E. Devonshire Edward Manners, 3rd Earl of Rutland Thomas Radcliffe, 3. Earl of Sussex Henry Radcliffe, 4. Earl of Sussex Robert Radcliffe, 5. Earl of Sussex William Parr, Marquis of Northampton Henry Wriothesley, 2. Southampton Henry Wriothesley, 3. Southampton Charles Neville, 6. E. Westmorland Thomas Percy, 7. E. Northumberland Henry Percy, 8. E. Northumberland Henry Percy, 9. E. Nothumberland William Herbert, 1. Earl of Pembroke Charles, Lord Howard of Effingham Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk Henry Howard, 1. Earl of Northampton Thomas Howard, 1. Earl of Suffolk Henry Hastings, 3. E. of Huntingdon Edward Manners, 3rd Earl of Rutland Roger Manners, 5th Earl of Rutland Francis Manners, 6th Earl of Rutland Henry FitzAlan, 12. Earl of Arundel Thomas, Earl Arundell of Wardour Edward Somerset, E. of Worcester William Davison Sir Walter Mildmay Sir Ralph Sadler Sir Amyas Paulet Gilbert Gifford Anthony Browne, Viscount Montague François, Duke of Alençon & Anjou Mary, Queen of Scots Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell Anthony Babington and the Babington Plot John Knox Philip II of Spain The Spanish Armada, 1588 Sir Francis Drake Sir John Hawkins William Camden Archbishop Whitgift Martin Marprelate Controversy John Penry (Martin Marprelate) Richard Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury John Dee, Alchemist Philip Henslowe Edward Alleyn The Blackfriars Theatre The Fortune Theatre The Rose Theatre The Swan Theatre Children's Companies The Admiral's Men The Lord Chamberlain's Men Citizen Comedy The Isle of Dogs, 1597 Common Law Court of Common Pleas Court of King's Bench Court of Star Chamber Council of the North Fleet Prison Assize Attainder First Fruits & Tenths Livery and Maintenance Oyer and terminer Praemunire The Stuarts King James I of England Anne of Denmark Henry, Prince of Wales The Gunpowder Plot, 1605 George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset Arabella Stuart, Lady Lennox William Alabaster Bishop Hall Bishop Thomas Morton Archbishop William Laud John Selden Lucy Harington, Countess of Bedford Henry Lawes King Charles I Queen Henrietta Maria Long Parliament Rump Parliament Kentish Petition, 1642 Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford John Digby, Earl of Bristol George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax Robert Devereux, 3rd E. of Essex Robert Sidney, 2. E. of Leicester Algernon Percy, E. of Northumberland Henry Montagu, Earl of Manchester Edward Montagu, 2. Earl of Manchester The Restoration King Charles II King James II Test Acts Greenwich Palace Hatfield House Richmond Palace Windsor Palace Woodstock Manor The Cinque Ports Mermaid Tavern Malmsey Wine Great Fire of London, 1666 Merchant Taylors' School Westminster School The Sanctuary at Westminster "Sanctuary" Images: Chart of the English Succession from William I through Henry VII Medieval English Drama London c1480, MS Royal 16 London, 1510, the earliest view in print Map of England from Saxton's Descriptio Angliae, 1579 London in late 16th century Location Map of Elizabethan London Plan of the Bankside, Southwark, in Shakespeare's time Detail of Norden's Map of the Bankside, 1593 Bull and Bear Baiting Rings from the Agas Map (1569-1590, pub. 1631) Sketch of the Swan Theatre, c. 1596 Westminster in the Seventeenth Century, by Hollar Visscher's View of London, 1616 Larger Visscher's View in Sections c. 1690. View of London Churches, after the Great Fire The Yard of the Tabard Inn from Thornbury, Old and New London | | - | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |