Thomas D Carroll | The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen (original) (raw)

Books by Thomas D Carroll

Bloomsbury Academic, 2025

This book contends that Wittgenstein’s philosophy—often in conversation with other philosophical ... more This book contends that Wittgenstein’s philosophy—often in conversation with other philosophical approaches—is a helpful resource for seeing religious diversities, for noticing aspects of religions that might otherwise escape one’s attention or be obscured by biases, and for uncovering and contemplating ethical aspects of this acknowledgment. In contemplating expanding philosophy of religion, this book has two focal points: Chinese philosophical and religious traditions and the intertwining of racism and religion in the United States. Attending to these foci for expansive philosophy of religion highlights two related features of Wittgenstein’s philosophy relevant to philosophical inquiry into religions: the relevance of contextual backgrounds to the interpretation of ways of life and the importance of reflection on the existential purposes that may be invoked in philosophical inquiry.

Four overlapping themes appear across the book. First, critical studies of the term “religion” are important for pointing out philosophical problems relating to globally engaged philosophy of religion. Second, going beyond the category of belief to consider diverse religious phenomena (such as rituals, practices, institutions, forms of belonging, and pragmatic forms of religious engagement) is valuable for interpreting a variety of religious traditions. Third, attention to social contexts helps avoid oversimplification in interpretation of philosophical arguments and religious phenomena. Fourth, this book contends that the work of clarification is not just empirical and theoretical but also ethical and even existential, leading philosophers to reflect on their own purposes in doing philosophy as well as address recalcitrant biases and stereotypes that persist in their social contexts.

Palgrave Macmillan, 2014

The commonly held view that Wittgensteinian philosophy of religion entails an irrationalist defen... more The commonly held view that Wittgensteinian philosophy of religion entails an irrationalist defense of religion known as 'fideism' loses plausibility when contrasted with recent scholarship on Wittgenstein's corpus, biography, and other sources. This book reevaluates the place of Wittgenstein in the philosophy of religion and charts a path forward for the subfield by advancing three themes. The first is that philosophers of religion should question received interpretations of philosophers, such as Wittgenstein, as well as the meanings of key terms used in interpretations, such as 'fideism'. The second theme is that Wittgenstein's philosophy, across his corpus, pursues a particular end: a searching clarity or perspicuity. The third theme is that with the rise of various religious movements within societies and around the world in recent decades, philosophy of religion has important tasks in clarifying global conversations on living well amidst human diversities and contemplating philosophy as a vocation.

Chapter Abstracts:

Chapter 1: “Problems of Interpretive Authority in Wittgenstein’s Corpus” identifies a variety of problems involved in developing a principled reading of Wittgenstein. In setting the stage for the book, this chapter explores hermeneutical problems of reading Wittgenstein’s works with an eye to their relevance to philosophy of religion. I explore the merits of some interpretive schemes readers have used in approaching Wittgenstein. While some of the sources that concern religions include private diaries and correspondences never intended for publication, these important but problematic texts merit close attention. I argue that these sources should be read against the central themes and arguments of the texts Wittgenstein did prepare for publication. One such central theme, the ethic of perspicuity, coordinates my readings of his corpus.

Chapter 2: “Wittgenstein, Biography, and Religious Identity” argues that studying Wittgenstein's biography is relevant to understanding his philosophical achievements and shortcomings. For Wittgenstein, philosophy was a personal practice as much as an academic discipline and one can see this practice in action in his life. The fragmentary and enigmatic remarks on religion found in places across his corpus can be better appreciated against the background of Wittgenstein’s life. The purpose of this chapter is to better appreciate the sources of discontinuity between Wittgenstein, who appears to have been alienated and possibly self-loathing, and his philosophy, which contains powerful resources for dismantling the very forces that bewitched him.

Chapter 3: “A History of Wittgenstein and Philosophy of Religion” explores historically how the ideas of “meaning as use,” “language-games,” and “forms of life" were of interest to philosophers of religion in the middle to late twentieth century due to the influence of verificationist tendencies in theories of meaning and austere naturalistic metaphysics. The chapter also traces the development of criticisms of Wittgensteinian philosophy of religion, with special attention given to the work of Kai Nielsen. Critics such as Nielsen have detected an intellectually evasive or protective trend in Wittgensteinian philosophy of religion, and interpretations of Wittgenstein that suggest or propose a strong identification of language-games with religions clearly ought to be left behind.

Chapter 4: “The Traditions of Fideism” presents a perspicuous approach to the histories of philosophy and theology through tracing the genealogies of the critical term “fideism” used in philosophical and theological classification and appraisal. Taking a cue from Wittgenstein, I propose that it is best to see how the term was actually used in its original context and to construct extensions of the term carefully from this original use. I trace the use of “fideism” from its origins in French Protestant and Catholic theological discourses to its current uses in philosophy, concluding that the term is helpful in interpretations only when philosophers scrupulously acknowledge the tradition of use that informs their understanding of the word.

Chapter 5: “On ‘Fideism’ as an Interpretive Category” considers the adequacy of “fideism” for approaching Wittgenstein through comparisons with analyses of James and Kierkegaard. What emerges from this historical study of reception and interpretation is that the meaning of this critical term has continued to shift through twentieth century philosophical scholarship, and thus the question of whether or not any particular philosopher is a fideist is not straightforward. While a narrative may be traced showing threads of late nineteenth century French Protestant fideism in James’s writings, connections with Kierkegaard and various traditions of fideism remain speculative and liable to introduce more misunderstanding than clarity. Unless narrowly circumscribed, use of the term “fideism” in interpreting Wittgenstein is likely to introduce more confusion than insight.

Chapter 6: “Religions, Epistemic Isolation, and Social Trust" considers whether Wittgenstein’s philosophy provides resources that may be used to epistemically isolate and protect religious beliefs and practices from public criticism. I argue that a central theme in Wittgenstein’s philosophy – the social nature of linguistic meaning – is incompatible with the idea that religious discourses are conceptually cut off from other discourses. The chapter explores the remarks on the idea of a private language in Philosophical Investigations in order to show how the isolationist reading of Wittgenstein does not fit well with central features of his developed philosophy. Drawing on the work of Stanley Cavell on and Annette Baier, I argue that trust is a requirement for establishing and maintaining the cooperative venture of language.

Chapter 7: “Wittgenstein's Ethic of Perspicuity and Philosophy of Religion” considers the import of the perspicuity reading of Wittgenstein for contemporary philosophy of religion. In this chapter, I will survey Stephen Mulhall’s therapeutic reading of Wittgenstein, D. Z. Phillips’ conception of contemplative philosophy, and John Clayton’s ideal of clarification of defensible differences. I also explore H. H. Price’s early criticisms of analytic philosophy, that philosophers have duties to their students and to the public that go beyond the mere analysis of concepts. Bringing together Price and Wittgenstein, I explore the role perspicuous philosophy of religion could play at a time in global history characterized by unprecedented contact across cultures and between peoples and in which traditionalist religious movements appear to be on the rise.

Interpreting Interreligious Relations with Wittgenstein: Philosophy, Theology and Religious Studi... more Interpreting Interreligious Relations with Wittgenstein: Philosophy, Theology and Religious Studies, co-edited with Daniel Weiss; Leiden: Brill (Volume 9 in Philosophy of Religion – World Religions series); 2019.

Interpreting Interreligious Relations with Wittgenstein argues that Wittgenstein’s philosophy of religion and his thought in general continue to be highly relevant for present and future research on interreligious relations. Spanning several (sub)disciplines – from philosophy of religion, philosophy of language, comparative philosophy, comparative theology, to religious studies – the contributions engage with recent developments in interpretation of Wittgenstein and those in philosophy and theology of interreligious encounter. The book shows that there is an important and under-explored potential for constructive and fruitful engagement between these academic fields. It explores, and attempts to realize, some of this potential by involving both philosophers and theologians, and critically assesses previous applications of Wittgenstein’s work in interreligious studies.

Papers by Thomas D Carroll

JoLMA: The Journal for the Philosophy of Language, Mind and the Arts, 2024

Despite overlooking religious topics, Wittgenstein’s Philosophical Investigations (PI) has had a ... more Despite overlooking religious topics, Wittgenstein’s Philosophical Investigations (PI) has had a large impact in philosophy of religion. This article surveys that influence and the reasons for it. In what follows, I first describe the reception of certain key concepts from the PI in philosophy of religion. Second, I examine a few scattered remarks on religious topics in the PI. Third, I consider the relevance of the PI for contemporary philosophy of religion. I argue that the dialogical nature of the PI, allowing different generations of readers to engage it with their particular philosophical problems, is key to its long term influence.

Dialogue: A Journal of Religion and Philosophy, 2024

This is a short essay on several themes in Wittgenstein's philosophy that are relevant to philoso... more This is a short essay on several themes in Wittgenstein's philosophy that are relevant to philosophy of religion.

Wittgenstein and the Cognitive Science of Religion: Interpreting Human Nature and the Mind. Robert Vinten (ed.), 2023

In this chapter, I explore in what senses Wittgenstein might be taken to support as well as to op... more In this chapter, I explore in what senses Wittgenstein might be taken to support as well as to oppose naturalist approaches to interpreting religious phenomena. First, I provide a short overview of some passages from Wittgenstein’s writings—especially the “Remarks on Frazer’s Golden Bough”—relevant to the issue of the naturalness of religious phenomena. Second, I venture some possibilities regarding what naturalism might mean in connection with Wittgenstein. Lastly, I explore the bearing of Wittgenstein’s remarks on religion for the interpretation of religious phenomena. Ultimately, I argue that Wittgenstein’s remarks on religion depict a way of thinking about the naturalness of religious phenomena, and that naturalistic depiction is part of the clarificatory work of philosophy. Wittgenstein reminds himself and his readers that religiosity is not something mysterious, per se; it is a core possibility within human life, one which can anchor meaningful living.

Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 2023

This article contends that James Baldwin’s exploration of racism and resistance to it in The Fire... more This article contends that James Baldwin’s exploration of racism and resistance to it in The Fire Next Time may be put into conversation with Ludwig Wittgenstein’s consideration of fundamental epistemic commitments in On Certainty. Out of this constructive engagement, I argue that white supremacism in the United States may be interpreted as being like a Wittgensteinian grounding or "hinge" commitment and that this viewpoint illuminates some of the ways in which white supremacism may interact with various kinds of religious commitments. This combined analysis depicts the extent to which fundamental commitments about race deeply affect people, including the formation of their ethical and civic values, existential and religious commitments, and range of empathetic capacity and also details similarities between Baldwin and Wittgenstein when it comes to their contentions that there is ethical value in the clarification of language and work on oneself.

Sophia, 2021

In recent years, philosophers have used expressions of Wittgenstein’s (e.g. “language-games,” “fo... more In recent years, philosophers have used expressions of Wittgenstein’s (e.g. “language-games,” “form of life,” and “family resemblance”) in attempts to conceive of the discipline of philosophy in a broad, open, and perhaps global way. These Wittgenstein-inspired approaches indicate an awareness of the importance of cultural and historical diversity for approaching philosophical questions. While some philosophers have taken inspiration from Wittgenstein in embracing contextualism in philosophical hermeneutics, Wittgenstein himself was more instrumental than contextual in his treatment of other philosophers; his focus in his writings was on his own philosophical problems. Does this mean that Wittgensteinian philosophy is a poor resource after all for comparative, cross-cultural, or globally-engaged philosophy (i.e. if it is properly Wittgensteinian)? In this article, I examine the relevance of Wittgenstein to contextually-sensitive philosophy through studies of his conceptions of history and culture, his interest in Spengler’s philosophy of history, and recent scholarship by Hans-Johann Glock and Hans Sluga on the place of contextualism in Wittgenstein’s analysis of philosophical problems. Ultimately, this article advances the view that there are strong resources in Wittgenstein’s philosophy for those seeking a more globally-engaged approach to the field.

Philosophy East and West, 2020

Despite the cultural distance between the Analects of Confucius and the writings of Wittgenstein,... more Despite the cultural distance between the Analects of Confucius and the writings of Wittgenstein, both link ethical cultivation with care in language use. This article explores that link by studying the both the implicit and explicit forms of reticence found in the textual sources. The objective is to bring into view some indirect modes of teaching within and across traditions, a dynamic that may be useful for future cross-cultural study of philosophical, religious, and/or ethical traditions.

The One, 2020

This is a short essay I wrote for the campus journal, The One (CUHK Shenzhen). It offers a critic... more This is a short essay I wrote for the campus journal, The One (CUHK Shenzhen). It offers a critical analysis of the terms "myth" and "religion" and their use in the academic study of religions.

Interpreting Interreligious Relations with Wittgenstein: Philosophy, Theology and Religious Studies, 2019

Recent years have seen an increasing amount of studies of the history of the term “religion” and ... more Recent years have seen an increasing amount of studies of the history of the term “religion” and how it figures in conceptions of “the secular” and of cultural differences generally. A recurrent theme in these studies is that “religion” carries associations with Protestant Christianity and thus is not as universal a category as it might appear. The aim of this paper is to explore some resources in Wittgenstein’s philosophy to obtain greater clarity about the contexts of ascription of religion-status to various phenomena and thus to gain perspective on claims made by scholars who investigate the genealogy of the term. While there is good reason to be circumspect about uncritical use of the term “religion” (no less in philosophizing about religions or conducting interreligious dialogue), I argue that instead of abandoning the term or proffering a critical theory of religion, investigation of ascriptions of religion will help philosophers to perceive more clearly the social dynamics that have led to some- one or thing being called religious and thus avoid equivocations that could obstruct the ends of philosophical inquiry or dialogue.

Dao, 2018

Broadly speaking, language is part of a social activity in both Wittgenstein and Xunzi 荀子, and fo... more Broadly speaking, language is part of a social activity in both Wittgenstein and Xunzi 荀子, and for both clarification of language is central to their philosophical projects; the goal of this article is to explore the extent of resonance and discord that may be found when comparing these two philosophers. While for Xunzi, the rectification of names (zhengming 正名) is anchored in a regard for establishing, propagating, and/or restoring a harmonious social system, perspicuity is for Wittgenstein represented as a philosoph- ical end in itself. The article ventures study in particular the themes of perspicuity and aspect-perception in Wittgenstein together with the topics of correcting names and the cultivation of the heart-mind (xin 心) in the Xunzi. The aspiration of this project is to gain an overview of the role(s) of clarification projects in different philosophical traditions, all while not overlooking the different historical contexts and philosophical ends of these two philosophers.

A Companion to Wittgenstein on Education: Pedagogical Investigations, Editors: Peters, Michael A., Stickney, Jeff , Feb 6, 2017

The goal of this essay is to explain how Wittgenstein's philosophy may be helpful for understandi... more The goal of this essay is to explain how Wittgenstein's philosophy may be helpful for understanding and addressing challenges to cross-cultural communication in educational contexts. In particular, the notions of “hinge,” “intellectual distance,” and “grounds” from On Certainty will be helpful for identifying cultural differences. Wittgenstein's dialogical conception of philosophy in Philosophical Investigations will be helpful for addressing that cultural difference in conversation. While here can be no panacea to address all potential sources of confusion, Wittgenstein's philosophy has strong resources that are helpful for curbing some of our human tendencies to misunderstand other people.

Philosophy East and West, Oct 2016

Scholars of early Confucianism such as Roger Ames and Chad Hansen argue that the doctrine of the ... more Scholars of early Confucianism such as Roger Ames and Chad Hansen argue that the doctrine of the rectification of names (zhengming) ought to be understood not as involving a metaphysically robust conception of truth as regulating the meaning of language but instead as a social practice established in connection with the performative end of social harmony. In this article, I draw some comparisons between the Confucian rectification of names, as represented by Ames and Hansen, and Wittgenstein's philosophical pursuit of clarity, arguing that the two may help shed light on each other. While the ethics of clarification present themselves in the Analects and Wittgenstein in mutually illuminating ways, a key difference between the two lies in perspicuity operating as an ultimate end for Wittgenstein while for Confucianism, rectification of names itself serves the ultimate end of renewal of social harmony.

Metaphilosophy, Jan 2016

Despite the growth in research in philosophy of religion over the past several decades, recent ye... more Despite the growth in research in philosophy of religion over the past several decades, recent years have seen a number of critical studies of this subfield in an effort to redirect the methods and topics of inquiry. This article argues that in addition to problems of religious parochialism described by critics such as Wesley Wildman, the subfield is facing a problem of relevance. In responding to this problem, it suggests that philosophers of religion should do three things: first, be critically self-aware about their aims of inquiry; second, investigate concepts used by other philosophers, scientists, and religious studies scholars to identify and dispel confusion about religions; and third, following the model of applied ethics, work to clarify concepts and advance arguments of contemporary practical urgency.

Sophia, 2015

This short paper is a response to Brian R. Clack's review of Wittgenstein within the Philosophy o... more This short paper is a response to Brian R. Clack's review of Wittgenstein within the Philosophy of Religion.

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception, Vol. 8, De Gruyter, 2013

The Contemplative Spirit. D.Z. Phillips on Religion and the Limits of Philosophy. Ed. by Ingolf U. Dalferth and Hartmut von Sass, 2010

When surveying the scholarly literature over Wittgensteinian fideism, it is easy to get the sense... more When surveying the scholarly literature over Wittgensteinian fideism, it is easy to get the sense that the principal interlocutors, Kai Nielsen and D.Z. Phillips, talk past one another, but finding the right words for appraising the distance between the two voices is difficult. In this paper, I seek to appreciate this intellectual distance through an exploration of the varying philosophical aims of Nielsen and Phillips, of the different intellectual imperatives that guide their respective conceptions of philosophical practice. In so doing, I seek to show how a contemplative mode in philosophy may be used to appraise a philosophical dispute and the terms of disagreement. In this case, a contemplative approach to understanding the dispute would frame Nielsen’s and Phillips’ contributions against the backdrop of the ends they conceive philosophy to have.

Time, Memory, and Cultural Change, ed. S. Dempsey and D. Nichols, Vienna: IWM Junior Visiting Fellows’ Conferences, Vol. 25., 2009

Religious Studies, Mar 1, 2008

Philosophers and theologians acknowledge that "fideism" is difficult to define but rarely agree o... more Philosophers and theologians acknowledge that "fideism" is difficult to define but rarely agree on what the best characterization of the term is. In this article, I investigate the history of use of "fideism" to explore why its meaning has been so contested and thus why it has not always been helpful for resolving philosophical problems. I trace the use of the term from its origins in French theology to its current uses in philosophy and theology, concluding that "fideism" is helpful in resolving philosophical problems only when philosophers scrupulously acknowledge the tradition of use that informs their understanding of the word.

Bloomsbury Academic, 2025

Palgrave Macmillan, 2014

Chapter Abstracts:

JoLMA: The Journal for the Philosophy of Language, Mind and the Arts, 2024

Dialogue: A Journal of Religion and Philosophy, 2024

Wittgenstein and the Cognitive Science of Religion: Interpreting Human Nature and the Mind. Robert Vinten (ed.), 2023

Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 2023

Sophia, 2021

Philosophy East and West, 2020

The One, 2020

Interpreting Interreligious Relations with Wittgenstein: Philosophy, Theology and Religious Studies, 2019

Dao, 2018

A Companion to Wittgenstein on Education: Pedagogical Investigations, Editors: Peters, Michael A., Stickney, Jeff , Feb 6, 2017

Philosophy East and West, Oct 2016

Metaphilosophy, Jan 2016

Sophia, 2015

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception, Vol. 8, De Gruyter, 2013

The Contemplative Spirit. D.Z. Phillips on Religion and the Limits of Philosophy. Ed. by Ingolf U. Dalferth and Hartmut von Sass, 2010

Time, Memory, and Cultural Change, ed. S. Dempsey and D. Nichols, Vienna: IWM Junior Visiting Fellows’ Conferences, Vol. 25., 2009

Religious Studies, Mar 1, 2008

This paper contributes to diversifying philosophy of religion through inquiry into ordinary relig... more This paper contributes to diversifying philosophy of religion through inquiry into ordinary religious engagement in China. Perhaps the Chinese context shows, above all, that forms religions may take are not what one might expect a priori. Investigating one’s social contexts reveals differences, and possibilities of meaningful living linked with traditions. Drawing inspiration from Ludwig Wittgenstein’s philosophy, this paper identifies five themes relevant to globally engaged philosophy of religion that appear when paying attention to Chinese religious diversities: the relevance of the reception and use of concepts of religion to globally engaged philosophy of religion; the plurality of ways that religiosities may be combined; the pragmatic ways that people may adopt religious practices, beliefs, values, and institutions; the plausible combination of atheism with non-theistic religious ideas and practices; and the forms of state power over social manifestations of religions as well as what even may be classified as a religion. Attention to these diversities will help globally engaged philosophers avoid confusion, contribute to opening scholars’ imaginations to the wide range of human possibilities when it comes to religiosities, and potentially generate new insights on similar phenomena.

Presented at the Society for Asian and Comparative Philosophy conference at the University of San Francisco (2023)

Duncan Pritchard has for nearly two decades been developing and defending “Wittgensteinian quasi-... more Duncan Pritchard has for nearly two decades been developing and defending “Wittgensteinian quasi-fideism,” a view that he takes to represent Wittgenstein’s views on the nature of religious belief. Drawing on ideas from Wittgenstein’s On Certainty, Pritchard’s view is that religious beliefs, such as “God exists,” are hinge propositions, commitments to ways of seeing and knowing the world, not propositional attitudes about the world that are justified by evidence. This paper argues that Pritchard’s quasi-fideism, while fitting for some forms of Christian thought and reasonable as a partial interpretation of On Certainty, overlooks the variety of ways in which Wittgenstein writes about certainties and religious beliefs; the ultimate aim of the paper is to develop a Wittgensteinian approach to the epistemology of religions that registers the different epistemic dynamics in play among diverse religious traditions. The first part of this paper critically examines Pritchard’s views on interpreting Wittgenstein on religious belief and the development of the notion of quasi- fideism. In order to discern the different ways in which Wittgenstein’s philosophy approaches the dynamics of religious beliefs, the second part of the paper considers Wittgenstein’s remarks on “hinges” and “grounds” in On Certainty. The third part of this paper explores whether a hinge epistemology of religions could address a wide variety of ways in which beliefs operate within diverse religious traditions, including both theistic traditions such as Christianity and nontheistic traditions like Buddhism. Depending on social context and historical tradition, religious beliefs may be in some cases susceptible to revision based on inquiry, evidence, or experience and in other cases hardened against revision.

For conference: Wittgenstein: Texts and Interpretation. Northwest University, Xi’an, China, Fall 2019

In this paper, I examine Wittgenstein’s “Remarks on Frazer’s Golden Bough,” the “Lectures on Reli... more In this paper, I examine Wittgenstein’s “Remarks on Frazer’s Golden Bough,” the “Lectures on Religious Belief,” and On Certainty to survey some of the themes relating to the epistemology of religions that recur across his philosophical career. I then propose an account of the relevance of Wittgenstein to a globally-engaged approach to epistemology of religions, focusing on the role(s) that belief may have within that field. Beliefs, and their roles in religions, need to be identified amidst the distinctive dynamics of the discourses and practices in which they are salient features. My central claim is that while there is good reason to be skeptical of any one account of the epistemology of religious beliefs being adequate, Wittgenstein’s contextualist philosophical tendencies are helpful for avoiding potential confusion as the disparate contours of beliefs across an increasingly wider plurality of religions are investigated.

For Conference: Wittgenstein and the Epistemology of Religious Belief, Department of Philosophy, Nova University Lisbon, Summer 2019

In Whose Tradition? Which Dao? (2015), James F. Peterman considers the partial affinities between... more In Whose Tradition? Which Dao? (2015), James F. Peterman considers the partial affinities between Wittgenstein and Confucianism on moral development and its ground. Although Peterman mentions practices and rituals frequently, he also indicates that comparison between Wittgenstein and Confucianism on this topic merits further attention. In this paper, I will explore the topic of li in the Analects and the Xunzi as well as Wittgenstein’s appraisal of ritual practices in his “Remarks on Frazer’s Golden Bough”.

While the worldviews, philosophical methods, and aims of inquiry of early Confucians and this twentieth century analytic philosopher could hardly be more different, an affinity between their philosophical approaches emerges when it comes to the conditions under which ritual practices are viable. In particular, this study will reflect on Wittgensteinian and Confucian perspectives on the role of sincerity in ritual activity, the idea being that ritual practices being internally related to a way of life is a common concern of both of these philosophical approaches. Where differences between the two approaches arise (differences beyond those generated by historical, linguistic, and cultural contexts) depends on their views regarding the moral requirement of ritual practices. Wittgenstein leaves this question unaddressed, perhaps because he is reacting against a scholarly sensibility that perceives rituals as part of a “primitive”, “magical” frame of mind; instead, Wittgenstein seeks to instill a sense of the ordinariness of sincere ritual activity for human beings. However, for the Analects and the Xunzi, ritual practice is an essential aspect of the moral reform that sages, junzi, and scholars would perform in their social contexts.