Social evolution theory for microorganisms (original) (raw)

References

1. Crespi, B. J. The evolution of social behavior in microorganisms. Trends Ecol. Evol. 16, 178?183 (2001).
   PubMed Google Scholar
2. Webb, J. S., Givskov, M. & Kjelleberg, S. Bacterial biofilms: prokaryotic adventures in multicellularity. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 6, 578?585 (2003).
   CAS PubMed Google Scholar
3. Lazdunski, A. M., Ventre, I. & Sturgis, J. N. Regulatory circuits and communication in Gram-negative bacteria. Nature Rev. Microbiol. 2, 581?592 (2004).
   CAS Google Scholar
4. Kreft, J. -U. Conflicts of interest in biofilms. Biofilms 1, 265?276 (2005).
   Google Scholar
5. Parsek, M. R. & Greenberg, E. P. Sociomicrobiology: the connections between quorum sensing and biofilms. Trends Microbiol. 13, 27?33 (2005).
   CAS PubMed Google Scholar
6. Keller, L. & Surett, M. G. Communication in bacteria: an ecological and evolutionary perspective. Nature Rev. Microbiol. 4, 249?258 (2006). A clear introduction to the social problems involved in communication between bacteria.
   CAS Google Scholar
7. Velicer, G. J. Social strife in the microbial world. Trends Microbiol. 11, 330?337 (2003).
   CAS PubMed Google Scholar
8. Shapiro, J. A. & Dworkin, M. Bacteria As Multicellular Organisms (Oxford University Press, New York, 1997).
   Google Scholar
9. Shapiro, J. A. Thinking about bacterial populations as multicellular organisms. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 52, 81?104 (1998).
   CAS PubMed Google Scholar
10. Hamilton, W. D. The genetical evolution of social behaviour, I & II. J. Theor. Biol. 7, 1?52 (1964).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
11. Maynard Smith, J. Group selection and kin selection. Nature 201, 1145?1147 (1964).
    Google Scholar
12. Williams, G. C. Adaptation and Natural Selection (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1966).
    Google Scholar
13. Dawkins, R. The Selfish Gene (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1976).
    Google Scholar
14. Maynard Smith, J. & Szathmary, E. The Major Transitions in Evolution (W. H. Freeman, Oxford, 1995).
    Google Scholar
15. Hamilton, W. D. Narrow Roads of Gene Land: I Evolution of Social Behaviour (W. H. Freeman, Oxford, 1996).
    Google Scholar
16. Elena, S. F. & Lenski, R. E. Evolution experiments with microorganisms: the dynamics and genetic bases of adaptation. Nature Rev. Genet. 4, 457?469 (2003).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
17. Frank, S. A. Foundations of Social Evolution (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1998).
    Google Scholar
18. Rousset, F. Genetic Structure and Selection in Subdivided Populations (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2004).
    Google Scholar
19. Dawkins, R. Twelve misunderstandings of kin selection. Z. Tierpsychol. 51, 184?200 (1979).
    Google Scholar
20. Grafen, A. in Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (eds Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B.) 62?84 (Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1984).
    Google Scholar
21. Maynard Smith, J. Models of evolution. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 219, 315?325 (1983).
    Google Scholar
22. Taylor, P. D. & Frank, S. A. How to make a kin selection model. J. Theor. Biol. 180, 27?37 (1996).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
23. Foster, K. R. & Wenseleers, T. A general model for the evolution of mutualisms. J. Evol. Biol. 25th January 2006 (doi: 10.1111/j.1420?9101.2005.01073.x). An excellent general overview of the mechanisms that can favour cooperation between species.
24. Lehmann, L. & Keller, L. The evolution of cooperation and altruism. A general framework and classification of models. J. Evol. Biol. (in the press).
25. Hamilton, W. D. The evolution of altruistic behaviour. Am. Nat. 97, 354?356 (1963).
    Google Scholar
26. Hardin, G. The tragedy of the commons. Science 162, 1243?1248 (1968). The classic description from a human perspective of why selfish interests erode the possibility of cooperation at the group level.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
27. Griffin, A. S., West, S. A. & Buckling, A. Cooperation and competition in pathogenic bacteria. Nature 430, 1024?1027 (2004). Demonstrates the social nature of a public goods trait (siderophores in Pseudomonas aeruginosa ), and shows how relatedness determines the extent to which cheats who do not produce public goods can spread in a population.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
28. West, S. A. & Buckling, A. Cooperation, virulence and siderophore production in bacterial parasites. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 270, 37?44 (2003). Theoretical analysis of the tragedy of the commons over the production of public goods in a specific microbial context ? siderophores.
    Google Scholar
29. Dinges, M. M., Orwin, P. M. & Schlievert, P. M. Exotoxins of Staphylococcus aureus. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 13, 16?34 (2000).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
30. Greig, D. & Travisano, M. The prisoner's dilemma and polymorphism in yeast SUC genes. Biol. Lett. 271, S25?S26 (2004).
    CAS Google Scholar
31. Swift, S. et al. in Advances in Microbial Physiology Vol. 45 (ed. Poole, R.) 199?270 (Elsevier, UK, 2001).
    Google Scholar
32. Diggle, S. P., Gardner, A., West, S. A. & Griffin, A. S. Evolutionary theory of bacterial quorum sensing: when is a signal not a signal? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. (in the press).
33. Riley, M. A. & Wertz, J. E. Bacteriocins: evolution, ecology and application. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 56, 117?137 (2002).
    CAS Google Scholar
34. Brown, S. P. Cooperation and conflict in host-manipulating parasites. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 266, 1899?1904 (1999).
    Google Scholar
35. Tateda, K. et al. The Pseudomonas aeruginosa autoinducer N-3-oxododecanoyl homoserine lactone accelerates apoptosis in macrophages and neutrophils. Infect. Immun. 71, 5785?5793 (2003).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
36. Hooi, D. S. W., Bycroft, B. W., Chhabra, S. R., Williams, P. & Pritchard, D. I. Differential immune modulatory activity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum-sensing signal molecules. Infect. Immun. 72, 6463?6470 (2004).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
37. Ciofu, O., Beveridge, T. J., Kadurugamuwa, J., Walther-Rasmussen, J. & Hoiby, N. Chromosomal β-lactamase is packaged into membrane vesicles and secreted from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 45, 9?13 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
38. Dugatkin, L. A., Perlin, M., Lucas, J. S. & Atlas, R. Group-beneficial traits, frequency-dependent selection and genotypic diversity: an antibiotic resistance paradigm. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 272, 79?83 (2005).
    Google Scholar
39. Daniels, R., Vanderleyden, J. & Michiels, J. Quorum sensing and swarming migration in bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 28, 261?289 (2004).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
40. Velicer, G. J. & Yu, Y. N. Evolution of novel cooperative swarming in the bacterium Myxococcus xanthus. Nature 425, 75?78 (2003).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
41. Davies, D. G. & Geesey, G. G. Regulation of the alginate biosynthesis gene algC in Pseudomonas aeruginosa during biofilm development in continuous culture. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61, 860?867 (1995).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
42. Rainey, P. B. & Rainey, K. Evolution of cooperation and conflict in experimental bacterial populations. Nature 425, 72?74 (2003).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
43. Pepper, J. W. Relatedness in trait group models of social evolution. J. Theor. Biol. 206, 355?368 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
44. Pfeiffer, T., Schuster, S. & Bonhoeffer, S. Cooperation and competition in the evolution of ATP-producing pathways. Science 292, 504?507 (2001).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
45. Kreft, J. -U. Biofilms promote altruism. Microbiology 150, 2751?2760 (2004).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
46. Bonner, J. T. The Cellular Slime Molds (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1967).
    Google Scholar
47. Strassmann, J. E., Zhu, Y. & Queller, D. C. Altruism and social cheating in the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. Nature 408, 965?967 (2000). A demonstration that different lineages of the slime mould Dictyostelium discoideum can come together to form fruiting bodies, and that this can lead to conflict.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
48. Velicer, G. J., Kroos, L. & Lenski, R. E. Developmental cheating in the social bacterium Myxococcus xanthus. Nature 404, 598?601 (2000).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
49. Riley, M. A. & Gordon, D. M. The ecological role of bacteriocins in bacterial cooperation. Trends Microbiol. 7, 129?133 (1999).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
50. Queller, D. C. Kinship, reciprocity and synergism in the evolution of social behaviour. Nature 318, 366?367 (1985).
    Google Scholar
51. Frank, S. A. Repression of competition and the evolution of cooperation. Evolution 57, 693?705 (2003). An overview of the idea, and history surrounding it, that cooperation can be favoured by repression of competition.
    PubMed Google Scholar
52. Sachs, J. L., Mueller, U. G., Wilcox, T. P. & Bull, J. J. The evolution of cooperation. Q. Rev. Biol. 79, 135?160 (2004). A comprehensive review of the mechanisms that can explain cooperation both within and between species.
    PubMed Google Scholar
53. Brown, J. L. & Brown, E. R. in Natural Selection and Social Behavior: Recent Research and New Theory (eds Alexander, R. D. & Tinkle, D. W.) 242?256 (Chiron Press, New York, 1981).
    Google Scholar
54. Hamilton, W. D. in Man and Beast: Comparative Social Behavior (eds Eisenberg, J. F. & Dillon, W. S.) 57?91 (Smithsonian Press, Washington, DC, 1971).
    Google Scholar
55. Smith, J. The social evolution of bacterial pathogenesis. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 268, 61?69 (2001).
    CAS Google Scholar
56. Griffin, A. S. & West, S. A. Kin discrimination and the benefit of helping in cooperatively breeding vertebrates. Science 302, 634?636 (2003).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
57. West, S. A., Reece, S. E. & Read, A. F. The evolution of gametocyte sex ratios in malaria and related apicomplexan (protozoan) parasites. Trends Parasitol. 17, 525?531 (2001).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
58. Meyer, J. -M. et al. Use of siderophores to type pseudomonads: the three Pseudomonas aeruginosa pyoverdine systems. Microbiology 143, 35?43 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
59. Smith, E. E., Sims, E. H., Spencer, D. H., Kaul, R. & Olson, M. V. Evidence for diversifying selection at the pyoverdine locus of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Bacteriol. 187, 2138?2147 (2005).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
60. Ji, G. Y., Beavis, R. C. & Novick, R. P. Cell density control of staphylococcal virulence mediated by an octapeptide pheromone. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 92, 12055?12059 (1997).
    Google Scholar
61. Novick, R. P. Autoinduction and signal transduction in the regulation of staphylococcal virulence. Mol. Microbiol. 48, 1429?1449 (2003).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
62. McDowell, P. et al. Structure, activity and evolution of the group I thiolactone peptide quorum-sensing system of Staphylococcus aureus. Mol. Microbiol. 41, 503?512 (2001).
    CAS Google Scholar
63. Déziel, E. et al. Analysis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa 4-hydroxy-2-alkylquinolines (HAQs) reveals a role for 4-hydroxy-2-heptylquinoline in cell to cell communication. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 1339?1344 (2004).
    PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
64. Diggle, S. P., Cornelis, P., Williams, P. & Camara, M. 4-Quinolone signalling in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: old molecules, new perspectives. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 296, 83?91 (2006).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
65. Keller, L. Indiscriminate altruism: unduly nice parents and siblings. Trends Ecol. Evol. 12, 99?103 (1997).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
66. Gardner, A. & West, S. A. Spite among siblings. Science 305, 1413?1414 (2004).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
67. Queller, D. C., Ponte, E., Bozzaro, S. & Strassmann, J. E. Single-gene greenbeard effects in the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. Science 299, 105?106 (2003). Demonstration of a green-beard gene in a microorganism.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
68. Hamilton, W. D. Selfish and spiteful behaviour in an evolutionary model. Nature 228, 1218?1220 (1970).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
69. Gardner, A. & West, S. A. Spite and the scale of competition. J. Evol. Biol. 17, 1195?1203 (2004).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
70. Gardner, A., West, S. A. & Buckling, A. Bacteriocins, spite and virulence. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 271, 1529?1535 (2004).
    CAS Google Scholar
71. Kerr, B., Riley, M. A., Feldman, M. W. & Bohannan, B. J. Local dispersal promotes biodiversity in a real-life game of rock-paper-scissors. Nature 418, 171?174 (2002).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
72. Kokko, H., Johnstone, R. A. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. The evolution of cooperative breeding through group augmentation. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 268, 187?196 (2001).
    CAS Google Scholar
73. Frank, S. A. Genetics of mutualism: the evolution of altruism between species. J. Theor. Biol. 170, 393?400 (1994).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
74. Kolenbrander, P. E. et al. Communication among oral bacteria. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 66, 486?505 (2002).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
75. Egland, P. G., Palmer, R. J. J. & Kolenbrander, P. E. Interspecies communication in Streptococcus gordonii?Veillonella atypica biofilms: signaling in flow conditions requires juxtaposition. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 16917?16922 (2004).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
76. Palmer, R. J. J., Kazmerzak, K., Hansen, M. C. & Kolenbrander, P. E. Mutualism versus independence: strategies of mixed-species oral biofilms in vitro using saliva as the sole nutrient source. Infect. Immun. 69, 5794?5804 (2001).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
77. Govan, J. R. W. & Deretic, V. Microbial pathogenesis in cystic fibrosis: mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia. Microbiol. Rev. 60, 539?574 (1996).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
78. Eberl, L. & Tummler, B. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia in cystic fibrosis: genome evolution, interactions and adaptation. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 294, 123?131 (2004).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
79. Frank, S. A. Host-symbiont conflict over the mixing of symbiotic lineages. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 263, 339?344 (1996).
    CAS Google Scholar
80. West, S. A., Kiers, E. T., Simms, E. L. & Denison, R. F. Sanctions and mutualism stability: why do rhizobia fix nitrogen? Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 269, 685?694 (2002).
    Google Scholar
81. Poulsen, M. & Boomsma, J. J. Mutualistic fungi control crop diversity in fungus growing ants. Science 307, 741?744 (2005). A stylish collection of experiments showing how leaf-cutter ants minimize the diversity of their symbiotic fungi, and therefore reduce conflict.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
82. Frank, S. A. Mutual policing and repression of competition in the evolution of cooperative groups. Nature 377, 520?522 (1995).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
83. Ratnieks, F. L. W. & Visscher, P. K. Worker policing in the honeybee. Nature 342, 796?797 (1989).
    Google Scholar
84. Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Parker, G. A. Punishment in animal societies. Nature 373, 209?216 (1995).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
85. Kiers, E. T., Rousseau, R. A., West, S. A. & Denison, R. F. Host sanctions and the legume-rhizobium mutualism. Nature 425, 78?81 (2003). Experimental evidence from the legume-Rhizobia system that sanctions (punishment) can provide an explanation for cooperation between species.
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
86. Ratnieks, F. L. W., Foster, K. R. & Wenseleers, T. Conflict resolution in insect societies. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 51, 581?608 (2006).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
87. Visick, K. L., Foster, J., Doino, J., McFall-Ngai, M. & Ruby, E. G. Vibrio fischeri genes play an important role in colonization and development of the host light organ. J. Bacteriol. 182, 4578?4586 (2000).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
88. Foster, K. R., Shaulsky, G., Strassmann, J. E., Queller, D. C. & Thompson, C. R. L. Pleiotropy as a mechanism to stabilize cooperation. Nature 431, 693?696 (2004).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
89. Fiegna, F., Yu, Y. -T. N., Kadam, S. V. & Velicer, G. J. Evolution of an obligate social cheater to a superior cooperator. Nature 441, 310?314 (2006).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
90. Lewis, K. Persister cells and the riddle of biofilm survival. Biochem. (Mosc.) 70, 267?274 (2005).
    CAS Google Scholar
91. Brown, S. P. & Johnstone, R. A. Cooperation in the dark: signalling and collective action in quorum-sensing bacteria. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 268, 961?965 (2001). An elegant analysis of quorum sensing from an evolutionary perspective.
    CAS Google Scholar
92. Dugatkin, L. A., Perlin, M. & Atlas, R. The evolution of group-beneficial traits in the absence of between-group selection. J. Theor. Biol. 220, 67?74 (2003).
    PubMed Google Scholar
93. Fortunato, A., Strassmann, J. E. & Queller, D. C. A linear dominance hierarchy among clones in chimeras of the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. J. Evol. Biol. 16, 438?445 (2003).
    CAS PubMed Google Scholar
94. Fiegna, F. & Velicer, G. J. Exploitative and hierarchical antagonism in a cooperative bacteria. PLoS Biol. 3, e370 (2006).
    Google Scholar
95. Foster, K. R., Fortunato, A., Strassmann, J. E. & Queller, D. C. The costs and benefits of being a chimera. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 269, 2357?2362 (2002).
    Google Scholar
96. Castillo, D., Switz, G., Foster, K. R., Strassman, J. S. & Queller, D. C. A cost to chimerism in Dictyostelium discoideum on natural substrates. Evol. Ecol. Res. 7, 263?271 (2005).
    Google Scholar
97. Guiral, S., Mitchell, T. J., Martin, B. & Claverys, J. -P. Competence-programmed predation of noncompetent cells in the human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae: genetic requirements. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102, 8710?8715 (2005).
    CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
98. Harvey, P. H. & Keymer, A. E. Comparing life histories using phylogenies. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 332, 31?39 (1991).
    Google Scholar
99. Hölldobler, B. & Wilson, E. O. The Ants (Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1990).
    Google Scholar
100. Boles, B. R., Thoendel, M. & Singh, P. K. Self-generated diversity produces 'insurance effects' in biofilm communities. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 16630?16635 (2004).
     CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
101. Hughes, W. O. H., Sumner, S., Borm, S. V. & Boomsma, J. J. Worker caste polymorphism has a geneticc basis in Acromyrmex leaf-cutting ants. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100, 9394?9397 (2003).
     CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
102. Ratledge, C. & Dover, L. G. Iron metabolism in pathogenic bacteria. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 54, 881?941 (2000).
     CAS PubMed Google Scholar
103. Queller, D. C. Genetic relatedness in viscous populations. Evol. Ecol. 8, 70?73 (1994).
     Google Scholar
104. West, S. A., Pen, I. & Griffin, A. S. Cooperation and competition between relatives. Science 296, 72?75 (2002).
     CAS PubMed Google Scholar
105. Gardner, A. & West, S. A. Demography, altruism, and the benefits of budding. J. Evol. Biol. 27th March 2006 (doi: 10.1111/j.1420?9101.2006.01104.x).
106. Frank, S. A. Models of parasite virulence. Q. Rev. Biol. 71, 37?78 (1996).
     CAS PubMed Google Scholar
107. Gandon, S., Mackinnon, M. J., Nee, S. & Read, A. F. Imperfect vaccines and the evolution of pathogen virulence. Nature 414, 751?756 (2002).
     Google Scholar
108. André, J. -B. & Godelle, B. Multicellular organization in bacteria as a target for drug therapy? Ecol. Lett. 8, 800?810 (2005).
     Google Scholar
109. Redfield, R. J. Is quorum sensing a side effect of diffusion sensing? Trends Microbiol. 10, 365?370 (2002).
     CAS PubMed Google Scholar
110. Queller, D. C. & Goodnight, K. F. Estimating relatedness using genetic markers. Evolution 43, 258?275 (1989).
     PubMed Google Scholar
111. Griffin, A. S. & West, S. A. Kin selection: fact and fiction. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17, 15?21 (2002).
     Google Scholar
112. Michod, R. E. & Roze, D. Cooperation and conflict in the evolution of multicellularity. Heredity 86, 1?7 (2001).
     CAS PubMed Google Scholar
113. Lee, B. et al. Heterogeneity of biofilms formed by nonmucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from patients with cystic fibrosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43, 5247?5255 (2005).
     CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
114. Kjelleberg, S. & Molin, S. Is there a role for quorum sensing signals in bacterial biofilms? Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 5, 254?258 (2002).
     CAS PubMed Google Scholar
115. Trivers, R. Social Evolution (Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park, 1985).
     Google Scholar
116. Tinbergen, N. On aims and methods of ethology. Z. Tierpsychologie 20, 410?433 (1963). A highly influential discussion of the synergistic benefits of studying behaviours from different perspectives.
     Google Scholar
117. Maynard Smith, J. & Harper, D. Animal Signals (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003).
     Google Scholar
118. Wynne-Edwards, V. C. Animal Dispersion in Relation to Social Behaviour (Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, 1962).
     Google Scholar
119. Maynard Smith, J. Group selection. Q. Rev. Biol. 51, 277?283 (1976).
     Google Scholar
120. Wilson, D. S. A theory of group selection. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 72, 143?146 (1975).
     CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
121. Reeve, H. K. & Keller, L. in Levels of Selection in Evolution (ed. Keller, L.) 3?14 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1999).
     Google Scholar
122. Hamilton, W. D. in Biosocial Anthropology (ed. Fox, R.) 133?155 (Wiley, New York, 1975).
     Google Scholar
123. Frank, S. A. Hierarchical selection theory and sex ratios. I. General solutions for structured populations. Theoret. Popul. Biol. 29, 312?342 (1986).
     CAS Google Scholar
124. Queller, D. C. Quantitative genetics, inclusive fitness, and group selection. Am. Nat. 139, 540?558 (1992).
     Google Scholar
125. Clutton-Brock, T. H. Breeding together: kin selection, reciprocity and mutualism in cooperative animal societies. Science 296, 69?72 (2002).
     CAS PubMed Google Scholar
126. Stevens, J. R. & Hauser, M. D. Why be nice? Psychological constraints on the evolution of cooperation. Trends Cog. Sci. 8, 60?65 (2004).
     Google Scholar
127. West, S. A. et al. Cooperation and the scale of competition in humans. Curr. Biol. 16, 1103?1106 (2006)
     CAS PubMed Google Scholar
128. Turner, P. E. & Chao, L. Prisoner's dilemma in an RNA virus. Nature 398, 441?443 (1999).
     CAS PubMed Google Scholar
129. Brown, S. P. Collective action in an RNA virus. J. Evol. Biol. 14, 821?828 (2001).
     Google Scholar

Download references