Antibodies against Plasmodium falciparum malaria at the molecular level (original) (raw)

• Gardner, M. J. et al. Genome sequence of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 419, 498–511 (2002).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Keeling, P. J. & Rayner, J. C. The origins of malaria: there are more things in heaven and earth. Parasitology 142, S16–S25 (2015).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Loy, D. E. et al. Out of Africa: origins and evolution of the human malaria parasites Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax. Int. J. Parasitol. 47, 87–97 (2017).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. World Malaria Report. WHO https://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world-malaria-report-2018/en/ (2018).
• De Niz, M. & Heussler, V. T. Rodent malaria models: insights into human disease and parasite biology. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 46, 46–93 (2018).
  Google Scholar
• Schofield, L. & Grau, G. E. Immunological processes in malaria pathogenesis. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 5, 722–735 (2005).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Kwong, P. D. What are the most powerful immunogen design vaccine strategies? Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 9, a029470 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Burton, D. R. Antibodies, viruses and vaccines. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2, 706–713 (2002).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Burton, D. R. What are the most powerful immunogen design vaccine strategies? Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 9, a030262 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Rappuoli, R., Bottomley, M. J., D’Oro, U., Finco, O. & De Gregorio, E. Reverse vaccinology 2.0: Human immunology instructs vaccine antigen design. J. Exp. Med. 213, 469–481 (2016).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Witney, A. A. et al. A proteomic view of the Plasmodium falciparum life cycle. Nature 419, 520 (2002).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Lasonder, E. et al. Analysis of the Plasmodium falciparum proteome by high-accuracy mass spedrometry. Nature 419, 537–542 (2002).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Roch, K. G. Le et al. Discovery of gene function by expression. Science 301, 1503–1508 (2003).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Bozdech, Z. et al. The transcriptome of the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle of Plasmodium falciparum. PLOS Biol. 1, 85–100 (2003).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Keitany, G. J. et al. Blood stage malaria disrupts humoral immunity to the pre-erythrocytic stage circumsporozoite protein. Cell Rep. 17, 3193–3205 (2016).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Orjih, A. U. & Nussenzweig, R. S. Plasmodium berghei: suppression of antibody response to sporozoite stage by acute blood stage infection. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 38, 1–8 (1979).
  PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• McCall, M. B. B., Kremsner, P. G. & Mordmüller, B. Correlating efficacy and immunogenicity in malaria vaccine trials. Semin. Immunol. 39, 52–64 (2018).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Hoffman, S. L. et al. Naturally acquired antibodies to sporozoites do not prevent malaria: Vaccine development implications. Science 237, 639–642 (1987).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Clyde, D. F., McCarthy, V. C., Miller, R. M. & Hornick, R. B. Specificity of protection of man immunized against sporozoite-induced falciparum malaria. Am. J. Med. Sci. 266, 398–404 (1973).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Hoffman, S. L. et al. Protection of humans against malaria by immunization with radiation-attenuated Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites. J. Infect. Dis. 185, 1155–1164 (2002).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Seder, R. A. et al. Protection against malaria by intravenous immunization with a nonreplicating sporozoite vaccine. Science 341, 1359–1365 (2013).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Sauerwein, R. W., Roestenberg, M. & Moorthy, V. S. Experimental human challenge infections can accelerate clinical malaria vaccine development. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 11, 57–64 (2011).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Ishizuka, A. S. et al. Protection against malaria at 1 year and immune correlates following PfSPZ vaccination. Nat. Med. 22, 614–623 (2016).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Stanisic, D. I., McCarthy, J. S. & Good, M. F. Controlled human malaria infection: applications, advances, and challenges. Infect. Immun. 86, 1–17 (2017).
  Google Scholar
• Epstein, J. E. et al. Live attenuated malaria vaccine designed to protect through hepatic CD8+ T cell immunity. Science 334, 475–480 (2011).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Nussenzweig, R. S., Vanderberg, J. P., Most, H. & Orton, C. Protective immunity produced by the injection of x-irradiated sporozoites of Plasmodium berghei. Nature 216, 160–162 (1967).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Roestenberg, M. et al. Protection against a malaria challenge by sporozoite inoculation. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 468–477 (2009).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Mordmüller, B. et al. Sterile protection against human malaria by chemoattenuated PfSPZ vaccine. Nature 542, 445–449 (2017).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., McGregor, I. A. & Carrington, S. Gamma-globulin and acquired immunity to human malaria. Nature 192, 733–737 (1961).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Edozien, J. C., Gilles, H. M. & Udeozo, I. O. K. Adult and cord-blood gamma-globulin and immunity to malaria in Nigerians. Lancet 280, 951–955 (1962).
  Article Google Scholar
• Doolan, D. L., Dobaño, C. & Baird, J. K. Acquired immunity to malaria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 22, 13–36 (2009).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Stone, W. J. R. et al. Unravelling the immune signature of Plasmodium falciparum transmission-reducing immunity. Nat. Commun. 9, 558 (2018).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Graves, P. M., Carters, R., Burkot, T. R., Quakyi, I. A. & Kumar, Ni. Antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum gamete surface antigens in papua new guinea sera. Parasite Immunol. 10, 209–218 (1988).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• van der Kolk, M., de Vlas, S. J. & Sauerwein, R. W. Reduction and enhancement of Plasmodium falciparum transmission by endemic human sera. Int. J. Parasitol. 36, 1091–1095 (2006).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Mulder, B. et al. Plasmodium falciparum: Membrane feeding assays and competition ELISAs for the measurement of transmission reduction in sera from Cameroon. Exp. Parasitol. 92, 81–86 (1999).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Bousema, T. et al. Human immune responses that reduce the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum in African populations. Int. J. Parasitol. 41, 293–300 (2011).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Carter, R. & Chen, D. H. Malaria transmission blocked by immunisation with gametes of the malaria parasite. Nature 263, 57–60 (1976).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Gwadz, R. W. & Green, I. Malaria immunization in Rhesus monkeys. A vaccine effective against both the sexual and asexual stages of Plasmodium knowlesi. J. Exp. Med. 148, 1311–1323 (1978).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Mendis, K. N. & Targett, G. A. T. Immunisation against gametes and asexual erythrocytic stages of a rodent malaria parasite. Nature 277, 389–391 (1979).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Rener, J. Target antigens of transmission-blocking immunity on gametes of Plasmodium falciparum. J. Exp. Med. 158, 976–981 (1983).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Nikolaeva, D., Draper, S. J. & Biswas, S. Toward the development of effective transmission-blocking vaccines for malaria. Expert. Rev. Vaccines 14, 653–680 (2015).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Sauerwein, R. W. & Bousema, T. Transmission blocking malaria vaccines: assays and candidates in clinical development. Vaccine 33, 7476–7482 (2015).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Kurup, S. P., Butler, N. S. & Harty, J. T. T cell-mediated immunity to malaria. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 19, 457–471 (2019).
  Article PubMed CAS PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Vanderberg, J. P. & Frevert, U. Intravital microscopy demonstrating antibody-mediated immobilisation of Plasmodium berghei sporozoites injected into skin by mosquitoes. Int. J. Parasitol. 34, 991–996 (2004).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Hopp, C. S. & Sinnis, P. The innate and adaptive response to mosquito saliva and Plasmodium sporozoites in the skin. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1342, 37–43 (2015).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Aliprandini, E. et al. Cytotoxic anti-circumsporozoite antibodies target malaria sporozoites in the host skin. Nat. Microbiol. 3, 1224–1233 (2018).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Portugal, S. et al. Malaria-associated atypical memory B cells exhibit markedly reduced B cell receptor signaling and effector function. eLife 4, e07218 (2015).
  Article PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Portugal, S., Obeng-Adjei, N., Moir, S., Crompton, P. D. & Pierce, S. K. Atypical memory B cells in human chronic infectious diseases: an interim report. Cell. Immunol. 321, 18–25 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Weiss, G. E. et al. Atypical memory B cells are greatly expanded in individuals living in a malaria-endemic area. J. Immunol. 183, 2176–2182 (2009).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Muellenbeck, M. F. et al. Atypical and classical memory B cells produce Plasmodium falciparum neutralizing antibodies. J. Exp. Med. 210, 389–399 (2013).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Wahlgren, M., Goel, S. & Akhouri, R. R. Variant surface antigens of Plasmodium falciparum and their roles in severe malaria. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 15, 479–491 (2017).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• McGregor, I. A., Carrington, S. P. & Cohen, S. Treatment of east African P. falciparum malaria with west African human γ-globulin. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 57, 170–175 (1963).
  Article Google Scholar
• Vermeulen, A. N. et al. Sequential expression of antigens on sexual stages of Plasmodium falciparum accessible to transmission-blocking antibodies in the mosquito. J. Exp. Med. 162, 1460–1476 (1985).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Roeffen, W. et al. Association between anti-Pfs48/45 reactivity and P. falciparum transmission-blocking activity in sera from Cameroon. Parasite Immunol. 18, 103–109 (1996).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Quakyi, I. A. et al. The 230-kDa gamete surface protein of Plasmodium falciparum is also a target for transmission-blocking antibodies. J. Immunol. 139, 4213–4217 (1987).
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Potocnjak, P., Yoshida, N., Nussenzweig, R. S. & Nussenzweig, V. Monovalent fragments (Fab) of monoclonal antibodies to a sporozoite surface antigen (Pb44) protect mice against malarial infection. J. Exp. Med. 151, 1504–1513 (1980).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Cochrane, A. H., Aikawa, M., Jeng, M. & Nussenzweig, R. S. Antibody-induced ultrastructural changes of malarial sporozoites. J. Immunol. 116, 859–867 (1976).
  PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Nardin, E. H. et al. Circumsporozoite proteins of human malaria parasites Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax. J. Exp. Med. 156, 20–30 (1982).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Zavala, F., Cochrane, A. H., Nardin, E. H., Nussenzweig, R. S. & Nussenzweig, V. Circumsporozoite proteins of malaria parasites contain a single immunodominant region with two or more identical epitopes. J. Exp. Med. 157, 1947–1957 (1983).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Fisher, C. R. et al. T-dependent B cell responses to Plasmodium induce antibodies that form a high-avidity multivalent complex with the circumsporozoite protein. PLOS Pathog. 13, e1006469 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Freeman, R. R., Trejdosiewicz, A. J. & Cross, G. A. M. Protective monoclonal antibodies recognising stage-specific merozoite antigens of a rodent malaria parasite. Nature 284, 366–368 (1980).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Cox, F. E. Hybridoma technology identifies protective malaria antigens. Nature 294, 612 (1981).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Perrin, L. H., Ramirez, E., Lambert, P. H. & Miescher, P. A. Inhibition of P. falciparum growth in human erythrocytes by monoclonal antibodies. Nature 289, 301–303 (1981).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Rener, J., Carter, R., Rosenberg, Y. & Miller, L. H. Anti-gamete monoclonal antibodies synergistically block transmission of malaria by preventing fertilization in the mosquito. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 77, 6797–6799 (1980).
  Article PubMed CAS PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Herrington, D. A. et al. Safety and immunogenicity in man of a synthetic peptide malaria vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites. Nature 328, 257–259 (1987).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Ballou, W. R. et al. Safety and efficacy of a recombinant DNA Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite vaccine. Lancet 1, 1277–1281 (1987).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Draper, S. J. et al. Malaria vaccines: recent advances and new horizons. Cell Host Microbe 24, 43–56 (2018).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Adepoju, P. RTS,S malaria vaccine pilots in three African countries. Lancet 393, 1685 (2019).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• The RTS,S Clinical Trial Partnership. A phase 3 trial of RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine in African infants. N. Engl. J. Med. 367, 2284–2295 (2012).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• The RTS,S Clinical Trial Partnership. Efficacy and safety of RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine with or without a booster dose in infants and children in Africa: final results of a phase 3, individually randomised, controlled trial. Lancet 386, 31–45 (2015).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• The RTS,S Clinical Trial Partnership. First results of phase 3 trial of RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine in African children. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 1863–1875 (2011).
  Article Google Scholar
• Doolan, D. L. Plasmodium immunomics. Int. J. Parasitol. 41, 3–20 (2011).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Davies, D. H., Duffy, P., Bodmer, J. L., Felgner, P. L. & Doolan, D. L. Large screen approaches to identify novel malaria vaccine candidates. Vaccine 33, 7496–7505 (2015).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Illingworth, J. J. et al. Functional comparison of blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum malaria vaccine candidate antigens. Front. Immunol. 10, 1254 (2019).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Hoffman, S. L., Vekemans, J., Richie, T. L. & Duffy, P. E. The march toward malaria vaccines. Vaccine 33, D13–D23 (2015).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Triller, G. et al. Natural parasite exposure induces protective human anti-malarial antibodies. Immunity 47, 1197–1209.e10 (2017). Triller et al. give the first molecular characterization of human parasite-inhibitory PfCSP-specific antibodies induced by natural parasite exposure that differ in their NANP-binding mode.
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Tan, J. et al. A public antibody lineage that potently inhibits malaria infection through dual binding to the circumsporozoite protein. Nat. Med. 24, 401–407 (2018). This study reports the identification of potent human PfCSP-specific antibodies targeting different epitopes in the N-terminal junction and the NANP after repeated immunization with radiation-attenuated sporozoites and low-dose sporozoite challenge in donors naturally exposed to P. falciparum.
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Murugan, R. et al. Clonal selection drives protective memory B cell responses in controlled human malaria infection. Sci. Immunol. 3, eaap8029 (2018). This study describes a clonal evolution analysis and functional characterization of more than 200 recombinant monoclonal human PfCSP-specific antibodies induced by repeated exposure of naive donors to live sporozoites under chemoprophylaxis, which identified potent high-affinity IGHV3-33, IGKV1-5 -encoded germline NANP-binding antibodies.
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Kisalu, N. K. et al. A human monoclonal antibody prevents malaria infection by targeting a new site of vulnerability on the parasite. Nat. Med. 24, 408–416 (2018). In this report, Kisalu et al. identify and provide molecular and functional characterization of a potent human monoclonal antibody, CIS43, which has a unique binding profile and high affinity to the PfCSP junction, induced by exposure of naive donors to radiation-attenuated sporozoites.
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Foquet, L. et al. Vaccine-induced monoclonal antibodies targeting circumsporozoite protein prevent Plasmodium falciparum infection. J. Clin. Invest. 124, 140–144 (2014).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Oyen, D. et al. Structural basis for antibody recognition of the NANP repeats in Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, E10438–E10445 (2017). This report is the first molecular characterization of the binding modes of two potent antibodies obtained from RTS,S/AS01-immunized donors to NANP and recombinant PfCSP.
  Article PubMed CAS PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Wardemann, H. & Murugan, R. From human antibody structure and function towards the design of a novel Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein malaria vaccine. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 53, 119–123 (2018).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Plassmeyer, M. L. et al. Structure of the Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein, a leading malaria vaccine candidate. J. Biol. Chem. 284, 26951–26963 (2009).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Dame, J. B. et al. Structure of the gene encoding the immunodominant surface antigen on the sporozoite of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Science 225, 593–599 (1984).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Doud, M. B. et al. Unexpected fold in the circumsporozoite protein target of malaria vaccines. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109, 7817–7822 (2012).
  Article PubMed CAS PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Scally, S. W. et al. Rare PfCSP C-terminal antibodies induced by live sporozoite vaccination are ineffective against malaria infection. J. Exp. Med. 215, 63–75 (2018). Scally et al. give a molecular characterization of the target epitope of a human antibody against the PfCSP C-terminal α-TSR domain that fails to bind to live sporozoites and lacks parasite-inhibitory activity, presumably due to inaccessibility of the PfCSP C terminus.
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Espinosa, D. A. et al. Proteolytic cleavage of the Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein is a target of protective antibodies. J. Infect. Dis. 212, 1111–1119 (2015).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Kidgell, C. et al. A systematic map of genetic variation in Plasmodium falciparum. PLOS Pathog. 2, e57 (2006).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Rathore, D., Sacci, J. B., de la Vega, P. & McCutchan, T. F. Binding and invasion of liver cells by Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites. Essential involvement of the amino terminus of circumsporozoite protein. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 7092–7098 (2002).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Aldrich, C. et al. Roles of the amino terminal region and repeat region of the Plasmodium berghei circumsporozoite protein in parasite infectivity. PLOS ONE 7, e32524 (2012).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Bongfen, S. E. et al. The N-terminal domain of Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein represents a target of protective immunity. Vaccine 27, 328–335 (2009).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Herrera, R. et al. Reversible conformational change in the Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein masks its adhesion domains. Infect. Immun. 83, 3771–3780 (2015).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Cerami, C. et al. The basolateral domain of the hepatocyte plasma membrane bears receptors for the circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites. Cell 70, 1021–1033 (1992).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Coppi, A. et al. The malaria circumsporozoite protein has two functional domains, each with distinct roles as sporozoites journey from mosquito to mammalian host. J. Exp. Med. 208, 341–356 (2011).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Coppi, A. et al. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans provide a signal to Plasmodium sporozoites to stop migrating and productively invade host cells. Cell Host Microbe 2, 316–327 (2007).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Dyson, H. J., Satterthwait, A. C., Lerner, R. A. & Wright, P. E. Conformational preferences of synthetic peptides derived from the immunodominant site of the circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium falciparum by 1H NMR. Biochemistry 29, 7828–7837 (1990).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Ghasparian, A., Moehle, K., Linden, A. & Robinson, J. A. Crystal structure of an NPNA-repeat motif from the circumsporozoite protein of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Chem. Commun. 3, 174–176 (2006).
  Article Google Scholar
• Imkeller, K. et al. Antihomotypic affinity maturation improves human B cell responses against a repetitive epitope. Science 360, 1358–1362 (2018). Ghasparian et al. (reference 97) and Imkeller et al. identify a novel mechanism to indirectly increase the antigen affinity of antibodies that bind to PfCSP NANP, through the selection of somatic mutations that mediate direct homotypic interactions between two NANP-bound Fab molecules.
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Oyen, D. et al. Cryo-EM structure of P. falciparum circumsporozoite protein with a vaccine-elicited antibody is stabilized by somatically mutated inter-Fab contacts. Sci. Adv. 4, eaau8529 (2018).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Marsh, K. & Howard, R. Antigens induced on erythrocytes by P. falciparum: expression of diverse and conserved determinants. Science 231, 150–153 (1986).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Bull, P. C. et al. Parasite antigens on the infected red cell surface are targets for naturally acquired immunity to malaria. Nat. Med. 4, 358–360 (1998).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Leech, James,H., Barnwell, J. W., Aikawa, M., Miller, L. H. & Howard, R. Plasmodium falciparum malaria: Association of knobs on the surface of infected erythrocytes with a histidine-rich protein and the erythrocyte skeleton. J. Cell Biol. 98, 1256–1264 (1984).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Tan, J., Piccoli, L. & Lanzavecchia, A. The antibody response to Plasmodium falciparum: cues for vaccine design and the discovery of receptor-based antibodies. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 37, 225–246 (2019).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Hill, D. L. et al. Opsonising antibodies to P. falciparum merozoites associated with immunity to clinical malaria. PLOS ONE 8, e74627 (2013).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Reiling, L. et al. Targets of complement-fixing antibodies in protective immunity against malaria in children. Nat. Commun. 10, 610 (2019).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Boyle, M. J. et al. Human antibodies fix complement to inhibit Plasmodium falciparum invasion of erythrocytes and are associated with protection against malaria. Immunity 42, 580–590 (2015).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Fried, M., Nosten, F., Brockman, A., Brabin, B. J. & Duffy, P. E. Maternal antibodies block malaria. Nature 395, 851–852 (1998).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Staalsoe, T. et al. Variant surface antigen-specific IgG and protection against clinical consequences of pregnancy-associated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Lancet 363, 283–289 (2004).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Fowkes, F. J. I., Richards, J. S., Simpson, J. A. & Beeson, J. G. The relationship between anti-merozoite antibodies and incidence of Plasmodium falciparum malaria: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Med. 7, e1000218 (2010).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Manske, M. et al. Analysis of Plasmodium falciparum diversity in natural infections by deep sequencing. Nature 487, 375–379 (2012).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Crosnier, C. et al. Basigin is a receptor essential for erythrocyte invasion by Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 480, 534–537 (2011).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Baum, J. et al. Reticulocyte-binding protein homologue 5 — an essential adhesin involved in invasion of human erythrocytes by Plasmodium falciparum. Int. J. Parasitol. 39, 371–380 (2009).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Volz, J. C. et al. Essential role of the PfRh5/PfRipr/CyRPA complex during Plasmodium falciparum invasion of erythrocytes. Cell Host Microbe 20, 60–71 (2016).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Wong, W. et al. Structure of Plasmodium falciparum Rh5–CyRPA–Ripr invasion complex. Nature 565, 118–121 (2019).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Chen, L. et al. An EGF-like protein forms a complex with PfRh5 and is required for invasion of human erythrocytes by Plasmodium falciparum. PLOS Pathog. 7, e1002199 (2011).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Reddy, K. S. et al. Multiprotein complex between the GPI-anchored CyRPA with PfRH5 and PfRipr is crucial for Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte invasion. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, 1179–1184 (2015).
  Article PubMed CAS PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Favuzza, P. et al. Structure of the malaria vaccine candidate antigen CyRPA and its complex with a parasite invasion inhibitory antibody. eLife 6, e20383 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Douglas, A. D. et al. The blood-stage malaria antigen PfRH5 is susceptible to vaccine-inducible cross-strain neutralizing antibody. Nat. Commun. 2, 601 (2011).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Healer, J. et al. Neutralising antibodies block the function of Rh5/Ripr/CyRPA complex during invasion of Plasmodium falciparum into human erythrocytes. Cell Microbiol. 21, e13030 (2019).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Wright, K. E. et al. Structure of malaria invasion protein RH5 with erythrocyte basigin and blocking antibodies. Nature 515, 427–430 (2014). This study provides a structural delineation of the crucial interaction between merozoite protein PfRH5 and the erythrocyte surface protein basigin and of the molecular basis of how antibody-binding to PfRH5 can efficiently block parasite invasion.
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Payne, R. O. et al. Human vaccination against RH5 induces neutralizing antimalarial antibodies that inhibit RH5 invasion complex interactions. JCI Insight 2, 1–19 (2017).
  CAS Google Scholar
• Alanine, D. G. W. et al. Human antibodies that slow erythrocyte invasion potentiate malaria-neutralizing antibodies. Cell 178, 216–228.e21 (2019).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Baruch, D. I. et al. Cloning the P. falciparum gene encoding PfEMP1, a malarial variant antigen and adherence receptor on the surface of parasitized human erythrocytes. Cell 82, 77–87 (1995).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Smith, J. D. et al. Switches in expression of Plasmodium falciparum var genes correlate with changes in antigenic and cytoadherent phenotypes of infected erythrocytes. Cell 82, 101–110 (1995).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Su, X. et al. The large diverse gene family var encodes proteins involved in cytoadherence and antigenic variation of _Plasmodium falciparum_-infected erythrocytes. Cell 82, 89–100 (1995).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Chen, Q. et al. Developmental selection of var gene expression in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 394, 392–395 (1998).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Fernandez, V., Hommel, M., Chen, Q., Hagblom, P. & Wahlgren, M. Small, clonally variant antigens expressed on the surface of the _Plasmodium falciparum_-infected erythrocyte are encoded by the rif gene family and are the target of human immune responses. J. Exp. Med. 190, 1393–1404 (1999).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Saito, F. et al. Immune evasion of Plasmodium falciparum by RIFIN via inhibitory receptors. Nature 552, 101–105 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Tan, J. et al. A LAIR1 insertion generates broadly reactive antibodies against malaria variant antigens. Nature 529, 105–109 (2016). Tan et al. identify a novel antibody diversification mechanism in humans based on the templated insertion of DNA fragments into antibody genes that generates broadly reactive antibodies against P. falciparum -infected erythrocytes.
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Pieper, K. et al. Public antibodies to malaria antigens generated by two LAIR1 insertion modalities. Nature 548, 597–601 (2017). This study provides mechanistic insights into the generation of LAIR1 antibodies through insertions in the IGHV–DJ joint or the hinge region between the IGH variable and constant regions, likely during germinal centre reactions, or by replacing the IGH variable region, which generates camel-like antibodies.
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Pradel, G. Proteins of the malaria parasite sexual stages: expression, function and potential for transmission blocking strategies. Parasitology 134, 1911–1929 (2007).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Canepa, G. E. et al. Antibody targeting of a specific region of Pfs47 blocks Plasmodium falciparum malaria transmission. NPJ Vaccines 3, 26 (2018).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Espinosa, D. A. et al. The Plasmodium falciparum cell-traversal protein for ookinetes and sporozoites as a candidate for preerythrocytic and transmission-blocking vaccines. Infect. Immun. 85, e00498–16 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Williamson, K. C., Criscio, M. D. & Kaslow, D. C. Cloning and expression of the gene for Plasmodium falciparum transmission-blocking target antigen, Pfs230. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 58, 355–358 (1993).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Kocken, C. H. M. et al. Cloning and expression of the gene coding for the transmission blocking target antigen Pfs48/45 of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 61, 59–68 (1993).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Kumar, N. & Carter, R. Biosynthesis of the target antigens of antibodies blocking transmission of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 13, 333–342 (1984).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• van Dijk, M. R. et al. A central role for P48/45 in malaria parasite male gamete fertility. Cell 104, 153–164 (2001).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Kumar, N. Target antigens of malaria transmission blocking immunity exist as a stable membrane bound complex. Parasite Immunol. 9, 321–335 (1987).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Outchkourov, N. et al. Epitope analysis of the malaria surface antigen Pfs48/45 identifies a subdomain that elicits transmission blocking antibodies. J. Biol. Chem. 282, 17148–17156 (2007).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Carter, R., Graves, P. M., Keister, D. B. & Quakyi, I. A. Properties of epitopes of Pfs 48/45, a target of transmission blocking monoclonal antibodies, on gametes of different isolates of Plasmodium falciparum. Parasite Immunol. 12, 587–603 (1990).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Roeffen, W. et al. Plasmodium falciparum: Production and characterization of rat monoclonal antibodies specific for the sexual-stage Pfs48/45 antigen. Exp. Parasitol. 97, 45–49 (2001).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Kundu, P. et al. Structural delineation of potent transmission-blocking epitope I on malaria antigen Pfs48/45. Nat. Commun. 9, 4458 (2018).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Lennartz, F. et al. Structural basis for recognition of the malaria vaccine candidate Pfs48/45 by a transmission blocking antibody. Nat. Commun. 9, 3822 (2018). Lennartz et al. uncover the antibody-binding regions on Pfs48/45 that correlate with transmission-blocking activity. Both Kundu et al. and Lennartz et al. reveal that a conformational epitope in the C-terminal domain of Pfs48/45 is recognized by the most potent transmission-blocking antibody, thus providing key molecular insights for structure-guided immunogen design. In addition, Kundu et al. describe humanization of the most potent rat-derived monoclonal antibody against Pfs48/45, thus paving the way for passive immunization studies in humans.
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• MacDonald, N. J. et al. Structural and immunological characterization of recombinant 6-cysteine domains of the Plasmodium falciparum sexual stage protein Pfs230. J. Biol. Chem. 291, 19913–19922 (2016).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Tachibana, M. et al. Identification of domains within Pfs230 that elicit transmission blocking antibody responses. Vaccine 37, 1799–1806 (2019).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Coelho, C. H., Doritchamou, J. Y. A., Zaidi, I. & Duffy, P. E. Advances in malaria vaccine development: report from the 2017 Malaria Vaccine Symposium. NPJ Vaccines 2, 34 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Kaslow, D. C. et al. A vaccine candidate from the sexual stage of human malaria that contains EGF-like domains. Nature 333, 74–76 (1988).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Barr, P. J. et al. Recombinant Pfs25 protein of Plasmodium falciparum elicits malaria transmission-blocking immunity in experimental animals. J. Exp. Med. 174, 1203–1208 (1991).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Gozar, M. M., Price, V. L. & Kaslow, D. C. _Saccharomyces cerevisiae_-secreted fusion proteins Pfs25 and Pfs28 elicit potent Plasmodium falciparum transmission-blocking antibodies in mice. Infect. Immun. 66, 59–64 (1998).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Chichester, J. A. et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a plant-produced Pfs25 virus-like particle as a transmission blocking vaccine against malaria: a Phase 1 dose-escalation study in healthy adults. Vaccine 36, 5865–5871 (2018).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Scally, S. W. et al. Molecular definition of multiple sites of antibody inhibition of malaria transmission-blocking vaccine antigen Pfs25. Nat. Commun. 8, 1568 (2017). This study describes the first crystal structure of Pfs25, a leading transmission-blocking antigen, in complex with crystal structures of six antibodies derived from immunizations in transgenic mice that possess the human immunoglobulin repertoire (Kymice). Two predominant immunogenic sites are defined on Pfs25, with a site located on the EGF3 domain being associated with recognition by the most potent antibodies for inhibiting parasite transmission to the mosquito vector.
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Talaat, K. R. et al. Safety and immunogenicity of Pfs25-EPA/alhydrogel®, a transmission blocking vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum: an open label study in malaria naïve adults. PLOS ONE 11, e0163144 (2016).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• McLeod, B. et al. Potent antibody lineage against malaria transmission elicited by human vaccination with Pfs25. Nat. Commun. (in the press).
• Sherrard-Smith, E. et al. Synergy in anti-malarial pre-erythrocytic and transmission-blocking antibodies is achieved by reducing parasite density. eLife 7, e35213 (2018). Sherrard-Smith et al. provide evidence that the coexistence of antibodies against two parasite life stages (the pre-erythrocytic and sexual stages) can function synergistically to enhance the efficacy of these antibodies across a range of transmission intensities. These findings are particularly relevant for designing multi-combinatorial approaches towards malaria elimination in the context of vaccines that may only confer partial protection when used alone.
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Pleass, R. J. & Holder, A. A. Opinion: antibody-based therapies for malaria. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 3, 893–899 (2005).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., Tian, Z., Thirumalai, D. & Zhang, X. Neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn): a novel target for therapeutic antibodies and antibody engineering. J. Drug Target. 22, 269–278 (2014).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Eldering, M. et al. Comparative assessment of An. gambiae and An. stephensi mosquitoes to determine transmission-reducing activity of antibodies against P. falciparum sexual stage antigens. Parasit. Vectors 10, 489 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Vanderberg, J. P. Imaging mosquito transmission of Plasmodium sporozoites into the mammalian host: Immunological implications. Parasitol. Int. 63, 150–164 (2014).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Aly, A. S. I., Vaughan, A. M. & Kappe, S. H. I. Malaria parasite development in the mosquito and infection of the mammalian host. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 63, 195–221 (2009).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Matsuoka, H., Yoshida, S., Hirai, M. & Ishii, A. A rodent malaria, Plasmodium berghei, is experimentally transmitted to mice by merely probing of infective mosquito, Anopheles stephensi. Parasitol. Int. 51, 17–23 (2002).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Frischknecht, F. et al. Imaging movement of malaria parasites during transmission by Anopheles mosquitoes. Cell. Microbiol. 6, 687–694 (2004).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Churcher, T. S. et al. Probability of transmission of malaria from mosquito to human is regulated by mosquito parasite density in naïve and vaccinated hosts. PLOS Pathog. 13, e1006108 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Beier, J. C. et al. Quantitation of Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites transmitted in vitro by experimentally infected Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles stephensi. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 44, 564–570 (1991).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Mota, M. M. et al. Migration of Plasmodium sporozoites through cells before infection. Science 291, 141–144 (2001).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Amino, R. et al. Host cell traversal is important for progression of the malaria parasite through the dermis to the liver. Cell Host Microbe 3, 88–96 (2008).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Yang, A. S. P. et al. Cell traversal activity is important for Plasmodium falciparum liver infection in humanized mice. Cell Rep. 18, 3105–3116 (2017).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Amino, R. et al. Quantitative imaging of Plasmodium transmission from mosquito to mammal. Nat. Med. 12, 220–224 (2006).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Yamauchi, L. M., Coppi, A., Snounou, G. & Sinnis, P. Plasmodium sporozoites trickle out of the injection site. Cell. Microbiol. 9, 1215–1222 (2007).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Sturm, A. et al. Manipulation of host hepatocytes by the malaria parasite for delivery into liver sinusoids. Science 313, 1287–1290 (2006).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Vaughan, A. M. et al. Complete Plasmodium falciparum liver-stage development in liver-chimeric mice. J. Clin. Invest. 122, 3618–3628 (2012).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Joice, R. et al. Plasmodium falciparum transmission stages accumulate in the human bone marrow. Sci. Transl. Med. 6, 244re5 (2014).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Dantzler, K. W., Ravel, D. B., Brancucci, N. M. & Marti, M. Ensuring transmission through dynamic host environments: host–pathogen interactions in Plasmodium sexual development. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 26, 17–23 (2015).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Whitten, M. M. A., Shiao, S. H. & Levashina, E. A. Mosquito midguts and malaria: cell biology, compartmentalization and immunology. Parasite Immunol. 28, 121–130 (2006).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Prudêncio, M., Mota, M. M. & Mendes, A. M. A toolbox to study liver stage malaria. Trends Parasitol. 27, 565–574 (2011).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Siciliano, G. & Alano, P. Enlightening the malaria parasite life cycle: bioluminescent Plasmodium in fundamental and applied research. Front. Microbiol. 6, 1–8 (2015).
  Article Google Scholar
• Richie, T. L. et al. Progress with Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite (PfSPZ)-based malaria vaccines. Vaccine 33, 7452–7461 (2015).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Trager, W. & Jensen, J. Human malaria parasites in continuous culture. Science 193, 673–675 (1976).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Ifediba, T. & Vanderberg, J. P. Complete in vitro maturation of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes. Nature 294, 364–366 (1981).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• van der Kolk, M. et al. Evaluation of the standard membrane feeding assay (SMFA) for the determination of malaria transmission-reducing activity using empirical data. Parasitology 130, 13–22 (2005).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Minkah, N. K., Schafer, C. & Kappe, S. H. I. Humanized mouse models for the study of human malaria parasite biology, pathogenesis, and immunity. Front. Immunol. 9, 807 (2018).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Othman, A. S. et al. The use of transgenic parasites in malaria vaccine research. Expert. Rev. Vaccines 16, 685–697 (2017).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Vanderberg, J. et al. Assessment of antibody protection against malaria sporozoites must be done by mosquito injection of sporozoites. Am. J. Pathol. 171, 1405–1406 (2007).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Ashkenazy, H., Erez, E., Martz, E., Pupko, T. & Ben-Tal, N. ConSurf 2010: calculating evolutionary conservation in sequence and structure of proteins and nucleic acids. Nucleic Acids Res. 38, W529–W533 (2010).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Chen, E., Paing, M. M., Salinas, N., Sim, B. K. L. & Tolia, N. H. Structural and functional basis for inhibition of erythrocyte invasion by antibodies that target Plasmodium falciparum EBA-175. PLOS Pathog. 9, e1003390 (2013).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Coley, A. M. et al. Structure of the malaria antigen AMA1 in complex with a growth-inhibitory antibody. PLOS Pathog. 3, e138 (2007).
  Article PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
• Chen, L. et al. Structural basis for inhibition of erythrocyte invasion by antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum protein CyRPA. eLife 6, 21347 (2017). This study describes a molecular mechanism for how antibody binding can block the interaction between CyRPA and PfRh5 to inhibit merozoite invasion of erythrocytes during the asexual erythrocyte stage.
  Article Google Scholar
• Douglas, A. D. et al. Neutralization of Plasmodium falciparum merozoites by antibodies against PfRH5. J. Immunol. 192, 245–258 (2013).
  Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
• Pettersen, E. F. et al. UCSF Chimera — a visualization system for exploratory research and analysis. J. Comput. Chem. 25, 1605–1612 (2004).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hsieh, F.-L. & Higgins, M. K. The structure of a LAIR1-containing human antibody reveals a novel mechanism of antigen recognition. eLife 6, e27311 (2017).
  Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar