Strategies to enhance T-cell reconstitution in immunocompromised patients (original) (raw)
Berzins, S. P. et al. Thymic regeneration: teaching an old immune system new tricks. Trends Mol. Med.8, 469–476 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
O'Reilly, R. J. et al. Biology and adoptive cell therapy of Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disorders in recipients of marrow allografts. Immunol. Rev.157, 195–216 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dudley, M. E. & Rosenberg, S. A. Adoptive-cell-transfer therapy for the treatment of patients with cancer. Nature Rev. Cancer3, 666–675 (2003). CAS Google Scholar
Small, T. N. et al. Comparison of immune reconstitution after unrelated and related T-cell-depleted bone marrow transplantation: effect of patient age and donor leukocyte infusions. Blood93, 467–480 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Storek, J. et al. Immunity of patients surviving 20 to 30 years after allogeneic or syngeneic bone marrow transplantation. Blood98, 3505–3512 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Parkman, R. & Weinberg, K. I. Immunological reconstitution following bone marrow transplantation. Immunol. Rev.157, 73–78 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Storek, J., Gooley, T., Witherspoon, R. P., Sullivan, K. M. & Storb, R. Infectious morbidity in long-term survivors of allogeneic marrow transplantation is associated with low CD4 T cell counts. Am. J. Hematol.54, 131–138 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Maraninchi, D. et al. Impact of T-cell depletion on outcome of allogeneic bone-marrow transplantation for standard-risk leukaemias. Lancet2, 175–178 (1987). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Curtis, R. E. et al. Solid cancers after bone marrow transplantation. N. Engl. J. Med.336, 897–904 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
BitMansour, A. et al. Myeloid progenitors protect against invasive aspergillosis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Blood100, 4660–4667 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Arber, C. et al. Common lymphoid progenitors rapidly engraft and protect against lethal murine cytomegalovirus infection after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Blood102, 421–428 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Atkinson, K. et al. Thymus transplantation after allogeneic bone marrow graft to prevent chronic graft-versus-host disease in humans. Transplantation33, 168–173 (1982). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Markert, M. L. et al. Transplantation of thymus tissue in complete DiGeorge syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med.341, 1180–1189 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Markert, M. L. et al. Thymus transplantation in complete DiGeorge syndrome: immunologic and safety evaluations in 12 patients. Blood102, 1121–1130 (2003). This article reports on the first series of patients with no detectable thymus function who received allogeneic cultured thymic tissue, resulting in recovery of T-cell function in 7 of 12 patients. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hong, R., Schulte-Wissermann, H., Jarrett-Toth, E., Horowitz, S. D. & Manning, D. D. Transplantation of cultured thymic fragments. II. Results in nude mice. J. Exp. Med.149, 398–415 (1979). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Waer, M., Palathumpat, V., Sobis, H. & Vandeputte, M. Induction of transplantation tolerance in mice across major histocompatibility barrier by using allogeneic thymus transplantation and total lymphoid irradiation. J. Immunol.145, 499–504 (1990). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Yamada, K. et al. Thymic transplantation in miniature swine. II. Induction of tolerance by transplantation of composite thymokidneys to thymectomized recipients. J. Immunol.164, 3079–3086 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kamano, C. et al. Vascularized thymic lobe transplantation in miniature swine: thymopoiesis and tolerance induction across fully MHC-mismatched barriers. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA101, 3827–3832 (2004). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Menard, M. T. et al. Composite 'thymoheart' transplantation improves cardiac allograft survival. Am. J. Transplant.4, 79–86 (2004). PubMed Google Scholar
Godfrey, D. I., Izon, D. J., Wilson, T. J., Tucek, C. L. & Boyd, R. L. Thymic stromal elements defined by M.Abs: ontogeny, and modulation in vivo by immunosuppression. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol.237, 269–275 (1988). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Blackburn, C. C. et al. The nu gene acts cell-autonomously and is required for differentiation of thymic epithelial progenitors. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA93, 5742–5746 (1996). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Gill, J., Malin, M., Hollander, G. A. & Boyd, R. Generation of a complete thymic microenvironment by MTS24+ thymic epithelial cells. Nature Immunol.3, 635–642 (2002). CAS Google Scholar
Bennett, A. R. et al. Identification and characterization of thymic epithelial progenitor cells. Immunity16, 803–814 (2002). These two articles describe the identification of a TEC subpopulation based on expression of the glycoprotein MTS24. These cells can fully reconstitute the thymic epithelial microenvironment and can support normal T-cell development. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Ceredig, R., Jenkinson, E. J., MacDonald, H. R. & Owen, J. J. Development of cytolytic T lymphocyte precursors in organ-cultured mouse embryonic thymus rudiments. J. Exp. Med.155, 617–622 (1982). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Poznansky, M. C. et al. Efficient generation of human T cells from a tissue-engineered thymic organoid. Nature Biotechnol.18, 729–734 (2000). CAS Google Scholar
Rosenzweig, M. et al. In vitro T lymphopoiesis of human and rhesus CD34+ progenitor cells. Blood87, 4040–4048 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gardner, J. P., Zhu, H., Colosi, P. C., Kurtzman, G. J. & Scadden, D. T. Robust, but transient expression of adeno-associated virus-transduced genes during human T lymphopoiesis. Blood90, 4854–4864 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Pawelec, G., Muller, R., Rehbein, A., Hahnel, K. & Ziegler, B. L. Extrathymic T cell differentiation in vitro from human CD34+ stem cells. J. Leukoc. Biol.64, 733–739 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Radtke, F., Wilson, A., Mancini, S. J. & MacDonald, H. R. Notch regulation of lymphocyte development and function. Nature Immunol.5, 247–253 (2004). This recent review provides an excellent overview of the role of the Notch family and their ligands in lymphocyte development. CAS Google Scholar
Harman, B. C., Jenkinson, E. J. & Anderson, G. Microenvironmental regulation of Notch signalling in T cell development. Semin. Immunol.15, 91–97 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schmitt, T. M. & Zuniga-Pflucker, J. C. Induction of T cell development from hematopoietic progenitor cells by delta-like-1 in vitro. Immunity17, 749–756 (2002). This article describes the capability of a bone-marrow stromal cell line ectopically expressing the Notch ligand Delta-like-1 to support the differentiation of haematopoietic progenitors into mature T cellsin vitro. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Varnum-Finney, B., Brashem-Stein, C. & Bernstein, I. D. Combined effects of Notch signaling and cytokines induce a multiple log increase in precursors with lymphoid and myeloid reconstituting ability. Blood101, 1784–1789 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Zuniga-Pflucker, J. C. T-cell development made simple. Nature Rev. Immunol.4, 67–72 (2004). CAS Google Scholar
Aspinall, R. & Andrew, D. Thymic atrophy in the mouse is a soluble problem of the thymic environment. Vaccine18, 1629–1637 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Nabarra, B. & Andrianarison, I. Ultrastructural study of thymic microenvironment involution in aging mice. Exp. Gerontol.31, 489–506 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Steffens, C. M., Al-Harthi, L., Shott, S., Yogev, R. & Landay, A. Evaluation of thymopoiesis using T cell receptor excision circles (TRECs): differential correlation between adult and pediatric TRECs and naive phenotypes. Clin. Immunol.97, 95–101 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Linton, P. J. & Dorshkind, K. Age-related changes in lymphocyte development and function. Nature Immunol.5, 133–139 (2004). CAS Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, F. T., Kendall, M. D., Wheeler, M. J., Adcock, I. M. & Greenstein, B. D. Reappearance of thymus of ageing rats after orchidectomy. J. Endocrinol.106, R17–R19 (1985). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Greenstein, B. D., Fitzpatrick, F. T., Kendall, M. D. & Wheeler, M. J. Regeneration of the thymus in old male rats treated with a stable analogue of LHRH. J. Endocrinol.112, 345–350 (1987). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Windmill, K. F. & Lee, V. W. Effects of castration on the lymphocytes of the thymus, spleen and lymph nodes. Tissue Cell30, 104–111 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Castro, J. E. Orchidectomy and the immune response. II. Response of orchidectomized mice to antigens. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B185, 437–451 (1974). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Olsen, N. J., Olson, G., Viselli, S. M., Gu, X. & Kovacs, W. J. Androgen receptors in thymic epithelium modulate thymus size and thymocyte development. Endocrinology142, 1278–1283 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Clark, R., Strasser, J., McCabe, S., Robbins, K. & Jardieu, P. Insulin-like growth factor-1 stimulation of lymphopoiesis. J. Clin. Invest.92, 540–548 (1993). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Welniak, L. A., Sun, R. & Murphy, W. J. The role of growth hormone in T-cell development and reconstitution. J. Leukoc. Biol.71, 381–387 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Murphy, W. J. & Longo, D. L. Growth hormone as an immunomodulating therapeutic agent. Immunol. Today21, 211–213 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Stuart, C. A., Meehan, R. T., Neale, L. S., Cintron, N. M. & Furlanetto, R. W. Insulin-like growth factor-I binds selectively to human peripheral blood monocytes and B-lymphocytes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.72, 1117–1122 (1991). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Walsh, P. T. & O'Connor, R. The insulin-like growth factor-I receptor is regulated by CD28 and protects activated T cells from apoptosis. Eur. J. Immunol.30, 1010–1018 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Murphy, W. J., Durum, S. K. & Longo, D. L. Role of neuroendocrine hormones in murine T cell development. Growth hormone exerts thymopoietic effects in vivo. J. Immunol.149, 3851–3857 (1992). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Foster, M., Montecino-Rodriguez, E., Clark, R. & Dorshkind, K. Regulation of B and T cell development by anterior pituitary hormones. Cell. Mol. Life Sci.54, 1076–1082 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dobashi, H., Sato, M., Tanaka, T., Tokuda, M. & Ishida, T. Growth hormone restores glucocorticoid-induced T cell suppression. FASEB J.15, 1861–1863 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tian, Z. G. et al. Recombinant human growth hormone promotes hematopoietic reconstitution after syngeneic bone marrow transplantation in mice. Stem Cells16, 193–199 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Small, T. et al. Longitudinal analysis of serum levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 post bone marrow transplantation. Blood90, 541a (1997). Google Scholar
Jardieu, P., Clark, R., Mortensen, D. & Dorshkind, K. In vivo administration of insulin-like growth factor-I stimulates primary B lymphopoiesis and enhances lymphocyte recovery after bone marrow transplantation. J. Immunol.152, 4320–4327 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Alpdogan, O. et al. Insulin-like growth factor-I enhances lymphoid and myeloid reconstitution after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Transplantation75, 1977–1983 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sun, R. et al. Immunologic and hematopoietic effects of recombinant human prolactin after syngeneic bone marrow transplantation in mice. Biol. Blood Marrow Transplant9, 426–434 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Housley, R. M. et al. Keratinocyte growth factor induces proliferation of hepatocytes and epithelial cells throughout the rat gastrointestinal tract. J. Clin. Invest.94, 1764–1777 (1994). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Pierce, G. F. et al. Stimulation of all epithelial elements during skin regeneration by keratinocyte growth factor. J. Exp. Med.179, 831–840 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Min, D. et al. Protection from thymic epithelial cell injury by keratinocyte growth factor: a new approach to improve thymic and peripheral T-cell reconstitution after bone marrow transplantation. Blood99, 4592–4600 (2002). This article describes how KGF can protect TECs against cytotoxic-therapy-induced damage, resulting in enhanced post-transplant T-cell recovery and function. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Erickson, M. et al. Regulation of thymic epithelium by keratinocyte growth factor. Blood100, 3269–3278 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Revest, J. M., Suniara, R. K., Kerr, K., Owen, J. J. & Dickson, C. Development of the thymus requires signaling through the fibroblast growth factor receptor R2-IIIb. J. Immunol.167, 1954–1961 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Panoskaltsis-Mortari, A., Lacey, D. L., Vallera, D. A. & Blazar, B. R. Keratinocyte growth factor administered before conditioning ameliorates graft-versus-host disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation in mice. Blood92, 3960–3967 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Krijanovski, O. I. et al. Keratinocyte growth factor separates graft-versus-leukemia effects from graft-versus-host disease. Blood94, 825–831 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Panoskaltsis-Mortari, A. et al. Keratinocyte growth factor facilitates alloengraftment and ameliorates graft-versus-host disease in mice by a mechanism independent of repair of conditioning-induced tissue injury. Blood96, 4350–4356 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rossi, S. et al. Keratinocyte growth factor preserves normal thymopoiesis and thymic microenvironment during experimental graft-versus-host disease. Blood100, 682–691 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Meropol, N. J. et al. Randomized phase I trial of recombinant human keratinocyte growth factor plus chemotherapy: potential role as mucosal protectant. J. Clin. Oncol.21, 1452–1458 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Nelson, B. H. IL-2, regulatory T Cells, and tolerance. J. Immunol.172, 3983–3988 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dutcher, J. Current status of interleukin-2 therapy for metastatic renal cell carcinoma and metastatic melanoma. Oncology (Huntington, NY)16, 4–10 (2002). Google Scholar
Soiffer, R. J., Murray, C., Gonin, R. & Ritz, J. Effect of low-dose interleukin-2 on disease relapse after T-cell-depleted allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Blood84, 964–971 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sereti, I. et al. Long-term effects of intermittent interleukin 2 therapy in patients with HIV infection: characterization of a novel subset of CD4+/CD25+ T cells. Blood100, 2159–2167 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
MacMillan, M. L. et al. High-producer interleukin-2 genotype increases risk for acute graft-versus-host disease after unrelated donor bone marrow transplantation. Transplantation76, 1758–1762 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rizzitelli, A., Berthier, R., Collin, V., Candeias, S. M. & Marche, P. N. T lymphocytes potentiate murine dendritic cells to produce IL-12. J. Immunol.169, 4237–4245 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Li, L. et al. IL-12 inhibits thymic involution by enhancing IL-7- and IL-2-induced thymocyte proliferation. J. Immunol.172, 2909–2916 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Fry, T. J. & Mackall, C. L. Interleukin-7: from bench to clinic. Blood99, 3892–3904 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Noguchi, M. et al. Interleukin-2 receptor γ chain: a functional component of the interleukin-7 receptor. Science262, 1877–1880 (1993). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Goodwin, R. G. et al. Cloning of the human and murine interleukin-7 receptors: demonstration of a soluble form and homology to a new receptor superfamily. Cell60, 941–951 (1990). CASPubMed Google Scholar
von Freeden-Jeffry, U. et al. Lymphopenia in interleukin (IL)-7 gene-deleted mice identifies IL-7 as a nonredundant cytokine. J. Exp. Med.181, 1519–1526 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Peschon, J. J. et al. Early lymphocyte expansion is severely impaired in interleukin 7 receptor-deficient mice. J. Exp. Med.180, 1955–1960 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
von Freeden-Jeffry, U., Solvason, N., Howard, M. & Murray, R. The earliest T lineage-committed cells depend on IL-7 for Bcl-2 expression and normal cell cycle progression. Immunity7, 147–154 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Akashi, K., Kondo, M., von Freeden-Jeffry, U., Murray, R. & Weissman, I. L. Bcl-2 rescues T lymphopoiesis in interleukin-7 receptor-deficient mice. Cell89, 1033–1041 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schluns, K. S., Kieper, W. C., Jameson, S. C. & Lefrancois, L. Interleukin-7 mediates the homeostasis of naive and memory CD8 T cells in vivo. Nature Immunol.1, 426–432 (2000). This is one of several articles to define the crucial role of IL-7 in the homeostasis of peripheral T cells. CAS Google Scholar
Schober, S. L. et al. Expression of the transcription factor lung Kruppel-like factor is regulated by cytokines and correlates with survival of memory T cells in vitro and in vivo. J. Immunol.163, 3662–3667 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kaech, S. M. et al. Selective expression of the interleukin 7 receptor identifies effector CD8 T cells that give rise to long-lived memory cells. Nature Immunol.4, 1191–1198 (2003). CAS Google Scholar
Tang, J. et al. TGF-β down-regulates stromal IL-7 secretion and inhibits proliferation of human B cell precursors. J. Immunol.159, 117–125 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Alpdogan, O. et al. IL-7 enhances peripheral T cell reconstitution after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. J. Clin. Invest.112, 1095–1107 (2003). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sempowski, G. D., Gooding, M. E., Liao, H. X., Le, P. T. & Haynes, B. F. T cell receptor excision circle assessment of thymopoiesis in aging mice. Mol. Immunol.38, 841–848 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bolotin, E., Smogorzewska, M., Smith, S., Widmer, M. & Weinberg, K. Enhancement of thymopoiesis after bone marrow transplant by in vivo interleukin-7. Blood88, 1887–1894 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Okamoto, Y., Douek, D. C., McFarland, R. D. & Koup, R. A. Effects of exogenous interleukin-7 on human thymus function. Blood99, 2851–2858 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Geiselhart, L. A. et al. IL-7 administration alters the CD4:CD8 ratio, increases T cell numbers, and increases T cell function in the absence of activation. J. Immunol.166, 3019–3027 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lynch, D. H. & Miller, R. E. Interleukin 7 promotes long-term in vitro growth of antitumor cytotoxic T lymphocytes with immunotherapeutic efficacy in vivo. J. Exp. Med.179, 31–42 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wiryana, P., Bui, T., Faltynek, C. R. & Ho, R. J. Augmentation of cell-mediated immunotherapy against herpes simplex virus by interleukins: comparison of in vivo effects of IL-2 and IL-7 on adoptively transferred T cells. Vaccine15, 561–563 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Abdul-Hai, A. et al. Stimulation of immune reconstitution by interleukin-7 after syngeneic bone marrow transplantation in mice. Exp. Hematol.24, 1416–1422 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Alpdogan, O. et al. Administration of interleukin-7 after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation improves immune reconstitution without aggravating graft-versus-host disease. Blood98, 2256–2265 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Mackall, C. L. et al. IL-7 increases both thymic-dependent and thymic-independent T-cell regeneration after bone marrow transplantation. Blood97, 1491–1497 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sinha, M. L., Fry, T. J., Fowler, D. H., Miller, G. & Mackall, C. L. Interleukin 7 worsens graft-versus-host disease. Blood100, 2642–2649 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Storek, J. et al. Interleukin-7 improves CD4 T-cell reconstitution after autologous CD34 cell transplantation in monkeys. Blood101, 4209–4218 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Fehniger, T. A. & Caligiuri, M. A. Interleukin 15: biology and relevance to human disease. Blood97, 14–32 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kennedy, M. K. et al. Reversible defects in natural killer and memory CD8 T cell lineages in interleukin 15-deficient mice. J. Exp. Med.191, 771–780 (2000). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Lodolce, J. P. et al. IL-15 receptor maintains lymphoid homeostasis by supporting lymphocyte homing and proliferation. Immunity9, 669–676 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Carson, W. E. et al. Interleukin (IL) 15 is a novel cytokine that activates human natural killer cells via components of the IL-2 receptor. J. Exp. Med.180, 1395–1403 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Carson, W. E. et al. A potential role for interleukin-15 in the regulation of human natural killer cell survival. J. Clin. Invest.99, 937–943 (1997). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Zhang, X., Sun, S., Hwang, I., Tough, D. F. & Sprent, J. Potent and selective stimulation of memory-phenotype CD8+ T cells in vivo by IL-15. Immunity8, 591–599 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Maeurer, M. J. et al. Interleukin-7 or interleukin-15 enhances survival of _Mycobacterium tuberculosis_-infected mice. Infect. Immun.68, 2962–2970 (2000). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Yajima, T. et al. Memory phenotype CD8+ T cells in IL-15 transgenic mice are involved in early protection against a primary infection with Listeria monocytogenes. Eur. J. Immunol.31, 757–766 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Klebanoff, C. A. et al. IL-15 enhances the in vivo antitumor activity of tumor-reactive CD8+ T cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA101, 1969–1974 (2004). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Katsanis, E. et al. IL-15 administration following syngeneic bone marrow transplantation prolongs survival of lymphoma bearing mice. Transplantation62, 872–875 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Alpdogan, O. et al. Interleukin-15 enhances immune reconstitution after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Blood July 27 2004 (doi:10.1182/blood-2003-09-3344).
Munger, W. et al. Studies evaluating the antitumor activity and toxicity of interleukin-15, a new T cell growth factor: comparison with interleukin-2. Cell. Immunol.165, 289–293 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Castelli, J., Thomas, E. K., Gilliet, M., Liu, Y. J. & Levy, J. A. Mature dendritic cells can enhance CD8+ cell noncytotoxic anti-HIV responses: the role of IL-15. Blood103, 2699–2704 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Acuto, O. & Michel, F. CD28-mediated co-stimulation: a quantitative support for TCR signalling. Nature Rev. Immunol.3, 939–951 (2003). CAS Google Scholar
Elflein, K., Rodriguez-Palmero, M., Kerkau, T. & Hunig, T. Rapid recovery from T lymphopenia by CD28 superagonist therapy. Blood102, 1764–1770 (2003). This article shows that a novel class of superagonistic CD28-specific antibodies can induce polyclonal T-cell proliferation without TCR engagement. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lin, C. H. & Hunig, T. Efficient expansion of regulatory T cells in vitro and in vivo with a CD28 superagonist. Eur. J. Immunol.33, 626–638 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kerstan, A. & Hunig, T. Distinct TCR- and CD28-derived signals regulate CD95L, Bcl-xL, and the survival of primary T cells. J. Immunol.172, 1341–1345 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Clegg, C. H., Rulffes, J. T., Wallace, P. M. & Haugen, H. S. Regulation of an extrathymic T-cell development pathway by oncostatin M. Nature384, 261–263 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sempowski, G. D. et al. Leukemia inhibitory factor, oncostatin M, IL-6, and stem cell factor mRNA expression in human thymus increases with age and is associated with thymic atrophy. J. Immunol.164, 2180–2187 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Mackall, C. L. & Gress, R. E. Pathways of T-cell regeneration in mice and humans: implications for bone marrow transplantation and immunotherapy. Immunol. Rev.157, 61–72 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dulude, G. et al. Thymic and extrathymic differentiation and expansion of T lymphocytes following bone marrow transplantation in irradiated recipients. Exp. Hematol.25, 992–1004 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Roux, E. et al. Analysis of T-cell repopulation after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: significant differences between recipients of T-cell depleted and unmanipulated grafts. Blood87, 3984–3992 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hebib, N. C. et al. Peripheral blood T cells generated after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: lower levels of Bcl-2 protein and enhanced sensitivity to spontaneous and CD95-mediated apoptosis in vitro. Blood94, 1803–1813 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lin, M. T. et al. Increased apoptosis of peripheral blood T cells following allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Abrogation of the apoptotic phenotype coincides with the recovery of normal naive/primed T-cell profiles. Blood95, 3832–3839 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Scollay, R., Smith, J. & Stauffer, V. Dynamics of early T cells: prothymocyte migration and proliferation in the adult mouse thymus. Immunol. Rev.91, 129–157 (1986). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Foss, D. L., Donskoy, E. & Goldschneider, I. The importation of hematogenous precursors by the thymus is a gated phenomenon in normal adult mice. J. Exp. Med.193, 365–374 (2001). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Petrie, H. T. Role of thymic organ structure and stromal composition in steady-state postnatal T-cell production. Immunol. Rev.189, 8–20 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Bhandoola, A., Sambandam, A., Allman, D., Meraz, A. & Schwarz, B. Early T lineage progenitors: new insights, but old questions remain. J. Immunol.171, 5653–5658 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kondo, M., Weissman, I. L. & Akashi, K. Identification of clonogenic common lymphoid progenitors in mouse bone marrow. Cell91, 661–672 (1997). This article describes the identification of a CLP in adult bone marrow that can give rise to T cells, B cells and NK cells. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Martin, C. H. et al. Efficient thymic immigration of B220+ lymphoid-restricted bone marrow cells with T precursor potential. Nature Immunol.4, 866–873 (2003). CAS Google Scholar
Allman, D. et al. Thymopoiesis independent of common lymphoid progenitors. Nature Immunol.4, 168–174 (2003). This article shows that early T-cell lineage progenitors are present in the thymus, and therefore the production of T-cell lineage progeny could be sustained by a CLP-independent pathway. CAS Google Scholar
Sitnicka, E. et al. Key role of flt3 ligand in regulation of the common lymphoid progenitor but not in maintenance of the hematopoietic stem cell pool. Immunity17, 463–472 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Igarashi, H., Gregory, S. C., Yokota, T., Sakaguchi, N. & Kincade, P. W. Transcription from the RAG1 locus marks the earliest lymphocyte progenitors in bone marrow. Immunity17, 117–130 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Perry, S. et al. L-selectin defines a bone marrow analog to the thymic early T-lineage progenitor. Blood103, 2990–2996 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rocha, B., Dautigny, N. & Pereira, P. Peripheral T lymphocytes: expansion potential and homeostatic regulation of pool sizes and CD4/CD8 ratios in vivo. Eur. J. Immunol.19, 905–911 (1989). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Ku, C. C., Murakami, M., Sakamoto, A., Kappler, J. & Marrack, P. Control of homeostasis of CD8+ memory T cells by opposing cytokines. Science288, 675–678 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tanchot, C. & Rocha, B. The organization of mature T-cell pools. Immunol. Today19, 575–579 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Freitas, A. A. & Rocha, B. Peripheral T cell survival. Curr. Opin. Immunol.11, 152–156 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Goldrath, A. W. & Bevan, M. J. Selecting and maintaining a diverse T-cell repertoire. Nature402, 255–262 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Viret, C., Wong, F. S. & Janeway, C. A. Jr. Designing and maintaining the mature TCR repertoire: the continuum of self-peptide:self-MHC complex recognition. Immunity10, 559–568 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dulude, G., Roy, D. C. & Perreault, C. The effect of graft-versus-host disease on T cell production and homeostasis. J. Exp. Med.189, 1329–1342 (1999). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Tan, J. T. et al. IL-7 is critical for homeostatic proliferation and survival of naive T cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA98, 8732–8737 (2001). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Schluns, K. S., Kieper, W. C., Jameson, S. C. & Lefrancois, L. Interleukin-7 mediates the homeostasis of naive and memory CD8 T cells in vivo. Nature Immunol.1, 426–432 (2000). CAS Google Scholar
Goldrath, A. W. et al. Cytokine requirements for acute and basal homeostatic proliferation of naive and memory CD8+ T cells. J. Exp. Med.195, 1515–1522 (2002). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Seddon, B., Tomlinson, P. & Zamoyska, R. Interleukin 7 and T cell receptor signals regulate homeostasis of CD4 memory cells. Nature Immunol.4, 680–686 (2003). CAS Google Scholar
Alves, N. L., Hooibrink, B., Arosa, F. A. & van Lier, R. A. IL-15 induces antigen-independent expansion and differentiation of human naive CD8+ T cells in vitro. Blood102, 2541–2546 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tan, J. T. et al. Interleukin (IL)-15 and IL-7 jointly regulate homeostatic proliferation of memory phenotype CD8+ cells but are not required for memory phenotype CD4+ cells. J. Exp. Med.195, 1523–1532 (2002). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Oukka, M. et al. The transcription factor NFAT4 is involved in the generation and survival of T cells. Immunity9, 295–304 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kuo, C. T., Veselits, M. L. & Leiden, J. M. LKLF: a transcriptional regulator of single-positive T cell quiescence and survival. Science277, 1986–1990 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Veis, D. J., Sorenson, C. M., Shutter, J. R. & Korsmeyer, S. J. Bcl-2-deficient mice demonstrate fulminant lymphoid apoptosis, polycystic kidneys, and hypopigmented hair. Cell75, 229–240 (1993). CASPubMed Google Scholar