Stefano M. Torelli | Istituto per gli Studi di Politica Internazionale (ISPI), Milan (original) (raw)
Peer Review Articles by Stefano M. Torelli
EuroMeSCo Paper N. 33, Apr 28, 2017
North Africa is experiencing the emergence of various Jihadist groups that are proving to be high... more North Africa is experiencing the emergence of various Jihadist groups that are proving to be highly capable of and effective in capitalising regional instability and advancing their political programmes and military operations at the expense of the on-going post-Arab uprisings political transition. In this context, the case of Tunisia is one of the most interesting and useful to study, both in terms of adaptation of a transitional regime to a new counter-terrorism strategy and of the influence that the EU could exert on the development of new policies in the security sector of a third country. The paper analyses EU’s counter-terrorism strategies in order to point out how the EU and its neighbourhood have traditionally dealt with violent extremist groups. Secondly, the paper focuses on how EU countries and Tunisia are responding to the terrorist threat. Finally, in order to better address the issue, the case study of Tunisia is analysed. The paper proposes some suggestions in order to develop a broader agenda the EU and regional stakeholders can pursue together in order to overcome these violent extremism threats.
Middle East Policy, Vol. 19, N. 4, pp. 140-154, Dec 2012
The first successful free and fair elections, held in October 2011, for the Constituent Assembly ... more The first successful free and fair elections, held in October 2011, for the Constituent Assembly and the formation soon after of a three-party ruling coalition1 seem to have set Tunisia squarely on the path towards democratization. Since then, very little attention has been paid to the country that kicked off the Arab Spring. Tunisian events have faded into the background of current affairs for two reasons. First, the focus has shifted to the fate of countries with greater geostrategic importance, such as Egypt, and with the potential of setting off a regional conflagration, such as Syria. Second, according to some scholars,2 Tunisia has already succeeded in its transition to democracy, although it has yet to consolidate its new institutions; therefore, not much can go wrong at this stage. Both reasons are valid to the extent that Tunisia is not a prominent regional actor and that its transition has indeed been smoother than those in Egypt, Yemen and Libya, where political volatility is higher. Thus, the media spotlight has moved to other countries. The little attention that Tunisia has received more recently has focused overwhelmingly on the emergence of the bogeyman of salafism.
Far from ushering in the triumph of liberal and secular democratic forces across the region, the Arab uprisings have led to the electoral success of Islamist parties and movements.3 This is no longer as problematic as it was in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when, for example, the Islamist party Front Islamique de Salut (FIS) was poised to take power in Algeria. Islamist movements have gone through a process of political moderation; many of them embrace the mechanisms of democracy and support basic human rights.4 However, the rise of Islamism in the wake of the Arab uprisings is not limited to what can be labeled mainstream Islamist parties deriving inspiration from the Muslim Brotherhood. Salafism, in its different strands, has surfaced as a potent political and social force, capturing a significant degree of attention and generating profound fear. In the capital and other cities around Tunisia, public rallies by thousands of salafist activists and supporters have occurred over the past 18 months and still take place today, raising fears that they might be the ultimate beneficiaries of the fall of Ben Ali and the inability of the current government coalition to solve the country's problems.
The rise of salafism in Tunisia has been both surprising and problematic. Unlike in Egypt or Yemen, there was very little evidence that such a phenomenon even existed in Tunisia. Policy analysts, secular politicians and civil-society activists still claim today that it is an imported phenomenon, completely extraneous to Tunisian political, intellectual and social history. It is also problematic because its public presence in a democratizing environment can, according to some, negatively affect the way in which Tunisia will build its new political system and deal with the question of its identity and core values.5 Surprise and wariness characterize as well the reaction of the international community, whose attitude towards salafism is extremely negative. It is perceived to pose a danger to liberal democracy and the stability of the international system.
Insight Turkey, Vol. 14, N. 3, pp. 65-83, Aug 2012
This paper analyzes the characteristics of the Turkish AKP (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi, the Justi... more This paper analyzes the characteristics of the Turkish AKP (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi, the Justice and Development Party) and the Tunisian Harakat al-Nahda (Renaissance Movement) using a comparative perspective. This analysis follows the recent rehabilitation of the Tunisian Islamist party after the fall of former President Zine al-Abidine Ben ‘Ali and its emergence as the leading political force in Tunisia after taking 89 out of 217 seats in the October 2011 elections for the Constituent Assembly. The aim of this analysis is to demonstrate that the so-called “Turkish model”—proposed by many scholars and analysts as an example that Tunisia and other countries in the region affected by regime change could follow—is not easily replicable in the post-Arab Spring context. There are three main reasons at different levels why the Tunisian case could be com- pared with the Turkish model. At the structural level, the secular nature of the Tunisian institutional context seems to be the closest one to the case of Turkey, particularly when compared to other Arab countries. Secondly, both countries possess an economic system that is sufficiently solid to allow for a significant level of political and institutional stability, the Tunisian post-revolution crisis notwithstanding. Finally, Tunisia, like Turkey, has a moderate Islamic party that aspires to become the leading actor in the democratic transition process. If it is true that Tunisia is the most similar case to that of Turkey across the Arab world, this comparison assumes an even greater significance. It follows that if the AKP model cannot be replicated in Tunisia, than it would be reasonable to assume that no other Arab country would be in a position to follow the Turkish path. The analysis focuses on the models of political Islam that have emerged
and developed in both Turkey and Tunisia, starting from the assumption that al-Nahda is in a phase of transformation and “institutionalization”, while the AKP has become a structured party whose political maturity is at its peak. In this regard it must be stressed that the article provides a preliminary theoretical framework to understand how the evolution of al-Nahda could occur within the new Tunisian context. It is difficult to compare al-Nahda and the AKP as the former looks more similar to the previous experiences of Turkish political Islam (until the Refah Party government experience in 1996-1997) than to the AKP itself, but there are structural bases for a comparison in so far as the “Turkish model” has been bandied about in Tunisia since the legalization of al-Nahda and even more so after its electoral success. Thus, it is important to take into account the official and traditional rhetoric of the Tunisian Islamist party while, at the same time, paying attention to the pragmatism that is leading al-Nahda to adapt itself to the post-Ben ‘Ali political landscape. In this paper the Tunisian and the Turkish case studies are examined and compared on three levels. First of all the historical and structural contexts of the two countries and the relationship between the state and Islam are taken into account. Secondly the two models of political Islam that have developed in Tunisia and Turkey are analyzed, noting that any particular way of interpreting a given culture or religion is conditioned by the socio-political system. Finally, the two different views of the social, political and economic life proposed by al-Nahda in Tunisia and by the AKP in Turkey are compared. After such an analysis, the article shows that the two models cannot be assimilated. On the contrary, they could even be seen as in competition. The AKP in fact could be perceived as an actor trying to expand its influence in the new context following the Arab Spring rather than as a model for their democratization processes. At the same time, al-Nahda could be regarded as an alternative model to the AKP for Arab countries, particularly in North Africa.
Rivista di Politica, N. 2, 2014, Rubbettino, 2014
In seguito alle rivolte che hanno portato alla caduta del regime di Ben ‘Ali, la scena politica d... more In seguito alle rivolte che hanno portato alla caduta del regime di Ben ‘Ali, la scena politica della Tunisia è stata inizialmente dominata dal partito islamico Ennahda. Dopo anni di repressione, quest’ultimo ha così avviato un processo di istituzionalizzazione, che lo ha reso uno dei principali attori politici protagonisti del processo di democratizzazione. Ciononostante, Ennahda non incarna l’unica forma di Islam politico in Tunisia. In parte come reazione al processo di inclusione di Ennahda e, dall’altro lato, come effetto del processo di liberalizzazione politica seguita alla caduta del regime, un’altra forma di Islam politico è gradualmente emersa: il salafismo. L’articolo ripercorre l’evoluzione – ideologica e strategica – dei movimenti salafiti in Tunisia,enfatizzandone le differenziazioni interne
Book Reviews by Stefano M. Torelli
British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 41, N. 4, pp. 517-518 , Oct 2014
Books by Stefano M. Torelli
Kurdistan, la nazione invisibile, Jun 2016
Diviso tra Turchia, Siria, Iraq e Iran, il Kurdistan rappresenta probabilmente uno degli scenari ... more Diviso tra Turchia, Siria, Iraq e Iran, il Kurdistan rappresenta probabilmente uno degli scenari geopolitici più caldi del Medio Oriente. È il territorio di un popolo, i curdi, che vanta più di trenta milioni di persone la più grande "nazione" senza Stato - e che si sta rivelando un attore cruciale della regione. Nelle recenti crisi mediorientali, infatti, il "fattore curdo" si è rivelato una costante fondamentale: dalle guerre in Iraq sotto Saddam Hussein alla lotta contro il cosiddetto Stato Islamico, dal ruolo nei delicati equilibri politici turchi al conflitto siriano. Senza dimenticare che il Kurdistan è una delle regioni più ricche di petrolio. Conoscere i curdi, distinguere le loro istanze autonomiste o indipendentiste, le priorità che ne guidano l'operato nei diversi contesti statali in cui si trovano a vivere, è quindi fondamentale per comprendere cosa stia avvenendo oggi. In questo volume si offre un primo approccio globale alla "questione curda" grazie all'apporto di studiosi internazionali e alla curatela dell'lSPl, uno dei più importanti istituti di ricerca europei.
Spread across Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran, Kurdistan is one of the hottest geopolitical areas in... more Spread across Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran, Kurdistan is one of the hottest geopolitical areas in the Middle East. It is a land inhabited by over 30 million people, representing one of the largest stateless "nations" worldwide. The Kurds play a crucial role in the region, and the so-called "Kurdish factor" has constantly been a key ingredient of recent Middle East crises: from the wars in Iraq under Saddam Hussein to the fight against the so-called Islamic State. Not to mention the strategic relevance that Kurdistan assumes as one of the oil-richest areas in the region. What new balances would an eventual victory of Kurds over IS create? What are the long-term goals of the Kurdish community? How to reach a solution to the Kurdish question able to satisfy all the actors involved? Can we envisage a common future for the Kurds or will they remain tied to the political destinies of the countries they live in? These are just some of the questions that this report tries to answer collecting contributions from leading international experts.
No attempt to define the Mediterranean as a region can overlook the multiplicity of political, re... more No attempt to define the Mediterranean as a region can overlook the multiplicity of political, religious and social forces at work along its shores. Responding to changes in the global and regional environment, these forces have interacted in complex ways, as evidenced by their impact on the social, cultural, and political life of the states explored in this volume. The peculiarity of the Mediterranean, as has been noted time and again, lies in its geographical position as a “sea in the middle of the land”, where different religions and cultures vie for recognition and self-expression.
In the wake of the popular uprisings that have inflamed the region, beginning in Tunisia in December 2010, a drastic reorganisation of their respective state systems is coming into focus in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya. Even in Morocco and Algeria, relatively untouched by such upheavals, popular discontent has led governments to introduce major political reforms. Though their paths do not run along parallel lines, they share a common denominator: the determination of their people to become the masters of their destinies, and to do so by grappling with new forms of democracy. Almost five years later, after their rulers became the target of violent mass protests, Tunisia, Egypt and Libya are going through an exceptionally difficult transition, trying to accommodate their nascent constitutional forms to the new forces inspired by the Arab Spring.
Egypt has reappeared again as a leading actor in the Middle East. After the fall of Mubarak, the ... more Egypt has reappeared again as a leading actor in the Middle East. After the fall of Mubarak, the rise to power of the Muslim Brotherhood and its ouster, the country has chosen its new ‘strongman’. Following the elections of al-Sisi, Egypt is back to pursuing a pro-active policy not only internally, but also in the neighbourhood. The restoration of the strategic axis with Saudi Arabia and the struggle against radical Islam are the two pillars of this new political phase. However, there are critical elements, too, from further deterioration of the political and civil liberties indexes, to the emergence of jihadist groups in the Sinai, to the enduring economic and financial difficulties. As a result of these changes, Europe and Italy should calibrate a new policy aimed at safeguarding their interests,especially from the points of view of security, stability and the fight against terrorism, also promoting more inclusive practices by the Cairo government vis-à-vis the opposition (including the Muslim Brotherhood) and developing policies which can help Egypt to respond to future challenges in terms of economic growth, poverty alleviation, demographic pressure and the creation of employment opportunities.
L’ascesa di IS in un vasto territorio tra Siria e Iraq e la competizione innescatasi all’interno ... more L’ascesa di IS in un vasto territorio tra Siria e Iraq e la competizione innescatasi all’interno della galassia jihadista della vecchia al-Qaida sembrano attivare dinamiche di concorrenza/coesistenza che hanno conseguenze molto rischiose per un’intera area geopolitica affetta da un’instabilità che già costituiva un terreno fertile per la proliferazione di gruppi radicali. La minaccia, che sta assumendo sempre più connotazioni di territorialità, sembra coinvolgere in particolare un vasto spazio di prossimità – che va dai Balcani sino al Maghreb – di grande interesse per l’UE e l’Italia in particolare.
Nella prima parte il Rapporto analizza la natura di questa minaccia e la sua reale portata, osservando quelle aree geopolitiche di permeabilità alla stessa in relazione agli attori locali e agli interessi italiani. Nella seconda si approfondiscono le implicazioni per la nostra politica estera e di difesa e sicurezza in senso ampio, cercando di fornire alcuni spunti di policy nell’ottica dell’azione internazionale dell’Italia.
17 dicembre 2010: il giovane ambulante tunisino Mohamed Bouazizi si dà alle fiamme per protestare... more 17 dicembre 2010: il giovane ambulante tunisino Mohamed Bouazizi si dà alle fiamme per protestare contro la polizia che aveva sequestrato la mercanzia che cercava di vendere per la strada. Quello che sembrava un episodio come tanti ha segnato, simbolicamente, l’inizio di una serie di cambiamenti epocali nell’area del Mediterraneo e del Vicino Oriente. Mentre in alcuni Paesi, come la Siria, si continua a combattere, in altri, come Tunisia, Egitto e Libia, regimi che credevamo oramai consolidati sono caduti, facendo emergere le enormi contraddizioni, ma anche le grandi speranze, di un mondo che, dall’altra parte del mare, abbiamo sempre giudicato ‘immutabile nel suo apparente immobilismo’. Cosa c’è davvero dietro alle piazze colme di giovani che inneggiano alla libertà e per questa hanno deciso di morire? Quali sono e da dove nascono storicamente le dinamiche che hanno dato vita alle rivolte? E soprattutto cosa accadrà ora che l’argine si è rotto e l’onda della ‘primavera araba’ sembra poter travolgere gli equilibri, già precari e complessi, della regione? Nulla sarà davvero più come prima? Sono domande a cui questo libro intende rispondere attraverso il contributo di studiosi che hanno analizzato sia i Paesi direttamente coinvolti dalle sollevazioni, sia gli attori regionali che, pur non essendone stati direttamente toccati, ne sono in qualche modo interessati, per cercare non solo di conoscere, ma anche e soprattutto di comprendere il senso delle rivolte arabe e i loro possibili esiti, per nulla scontati.
In appendice l'intervista a Malek Twal, Segretario generale del ministero delle riforme politiche del regno hascemita di Giordania.
Il libro si occupa di investigare le attuali direttrici della politica estera italiana, esponendo... more Il libro si occupa di investigare le attuali direttrici della politica estera italiana, esponendone i punti di forza e di debolezza in sei capitoli. La trattazione prevede un doppio canale, geografico e settoriale: sono state analizzate le caratteristiche dei rapporti politici e commerciali dell’Italia in quattro aree (Estremo Oriente, Balcani, Mediterraneo, Stati Uniti) nonché il concetto di interesse nazionale e l’importanza dell’approvvigionamento energetico. Il filo rosso che collega l’intera opera è rappresentato da un approccio originale alle relazioni tra l’Italia, l’Unione europea e gli altri partner continentali in un contesto di competizione globale. Pur partendo da solide convinzioni europeiste, gli autori desiderano rimarcare la persistente divergenza di interessi in merito ad alcuni aspetti sostanziali della politica estera. Al contempo, però, sono stati evidenziati i punti sui quali un’azione sinergica dei vari attori europei possa essere fruttuosa per tutti, dando vita ad una strategia win-win (mentre in altri casi si tratta di un gioco a somma zero tra i Paesi europei, nel quale al rafforzamento di un soggetto corrisponde l’indebolimento di un altro).
Book chapters by Stefano M. Torelli
Atlante Geopolitico 2017, Apr 2017
Lo scopo di questo saggio è quello di fornire alcune chiavi di lettura che possano aiutare a ‘di... more Lo scopo di questo saggio è quello di fornire alcune chiavi di lettura che possano aiutare a ‘districarsi’ nel complesso panorama del jihadismo, attraverso un doppio binario comparativo temporale e spaziale. Da un lato, dunque, si ripercorrerà brevemente l’evoluzione del terrorismo di matrice islamica negli ultimi anni; dall’altro, si forniràun quadro della sua dimensione geografica. In entrambi i casi, sara possibile rintracciare gli elementi di differenziazione che segnano la trasforma- zione di questo fenomeno, che rimane legato alla regione mediorientale, ma che ha connota- zioni globali. Lungi dall’essere un mero esercizio retorico, tale ricostruzione puòrisultare utile per comprendere meglio la questione e inquadrarla all’interno delle attuali dinamiche politiche internazionali.
"Transformation in Tunisia: The First Five Years", edited by Wolfgang Mühlberger , Feb 2017
The political transition process that started in Tunisia in 2011 continues to move forward, albei... more The political transition process that started in Tunisia in 2011 continues to move forward, albeit against many obstacles. Among the major challenges to the stability of the country and to the consolidation of democratic institutions and practices, terrorism is definitely the most worrisome. The Jihadist threat jeopardises Tunisian security and the country has to adopt new strategies to combat it. Among the objectives of the new counter-terrorist strategies there is certainly that of adapting to new forms of Jihadism. To do this, it is essential to understand the factors and processes that led to the radicalisation of hundreds of young people. This has to be done from both the tactical/operational and ideological points of view. In the first instance, in order to better frame the evolving strategies and objectives of Tunisian Jihadist movements it is necessary to implement an effective response from the point of view of repression. However, it is even more important to intervene on the level of prevention. To do this, the contexts in which new forms of violent extremism arise must be understood and the causes identified, so that action can be taken before the processes of radicalisation occur. Finally, there is a need to focus on de-radicalisation programmes too, to recover and reintegrate into society individuals who have previously chosen the path of extremism. In implementing a comprehensive anti-terrorist strategy, an increased coordination effort between all the stakeholders is required. On the operational level, the army, the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of the Interior should coordinate with other economic and social ministries. At the political level, there is a need to clarify the responsibilities of the two major institutional actors, the Presidency of the Republic and the Prime Minister. The constitutional framework does not clearly establish the prerogatives of these two figures, thus creating a deadlock. Moreover, under this kind of institutional balance, the important issue of counter-terrorism is likely to be blocked due to any institutional clashes. Thus, the political contingency influences the effectiveness of the government action. Tunisia has to face all these challenges in order to deal with a constantly changing threat, which has deep roots in the socioeconomic context of the country. The chapter first analyses the evolution of the Jihadist threat in Tunisia, retracing the three phases that characterised the origins and development of home-grown terrorism. In the second part, it aims to give some policy indications on possible measures to be taken to fight terrorism.
Salafism After the Arab Awakening. Contending with People's Power, 2016
This chapter will trace the steps of the rise and the evolution of the Salafi mouvance in Tunisia... more This chapter will trace the steps of the rise and the evolution of the Salafi mouvance in Tunisia from its first public appearance to the first manifestations of jihadism that part of movement seems to have opted for, including the 2015 attacks in Tunis and Sousse. Particular attention will be paid to the dynamics of the relationship between the Ansar al-Shari‘a movement in Tunisia (AST) and the al-Nahda-led government; and to how government repression influences new developments in the practices of the Salafis in Tunisia.
Islamic State (IS) is only the most recent terrorist group to have found a place in Libya and ... more Islamic State (IS) is only the most recent terrorist group to have found a place in Libya and the Maghreb. The jihadist panorama in Libya is very broad. In recent years various Salafi jihadist networks have found refuge there. The months’ long period of extreme crisis in Libya has deep causes and distant origins, which range from a weak Libyan national identity to legacies from the civil war of 2011, which did not end with the death of Qaddafi and the fall of his regime. One of
the main and very concrete consequences of this instability has been the transformation of Libya into a failed state with a strong radical Islamist presence.
The semi-anarchic Libya is experiencing a very worrying phenomenon: it has quickly become a safe haven for local, foreign (i.e. Tunisian and Egyptian) and international jihadist groups, such as Al-Qaeda (AQ), Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and Islamic State (IS). The new regional scenario is fostering more assertive and more radical positions within Libyan jihadism, which is thought to be the target of external plots’ that aim to undermine its post-revolutionary achievements.
Stefano M. Torelli (ed.), "The Return of Egypt. Internal Challenges and Regional Game", ISPI, 2015, Jul 27, 2015
How to reconcile a European policy in the Mediterranean able to involve Egypt as a reliable part... more How to reconcile a European policy in the Mediterranean
able to involve Egypt as a reliable partner and, at the same time, to ensure the promotion of essential European values in the field of civil and political rights? Where and how can the EU act to incorporate Egypt into a process of regional integration and cooperation on issues of shared importance? How can the EU deal with its loss of leverage in Egypt and in the region as a whole? Will heads of member states continue to look the other way as private sector bilateral deals are signed with a military regime systematically targeting the rights of Egyptian citizens? For European policy makers these issues raise further questions related to broader foreign policy strategy, commitment to deeper democracy, and the kind of relationship we want to maintain with Egypt.
L'Italia e la minaccia jihadista. Quale politica estera? - ISPI, Milano, 2015
L’attentato contro il Museo del Bardo a Tunisi del 18 marzo 2015, che ha causato la morte di 24 p... more L’attentato contro il Museo del Bardo a Tunisi del 18 marzo 2015, che ha causato la morte di 24 persone, quasi tutti turisti, e di cui quattro di nazionalità italiana, avveniva quando il presente capitolo era già stato concluso. I fatti di Tunisi non fanno altro che ribadire la necessità che l’Italia prenda coscienza della minaccia jihadista presente anche al confine tra Algeria e Tunisia e di tutte le misure necessarie per tutelare i propri interessi, di natura economica e di sicurezza, in questa parte del Nord Africa.
The Arab Spring in Comparative Perspectives, S. Florensa (ed.), Joint Policy Study SSN-Eurmoesco, Mar 2015
“This is not an Islamic revolution,” declared the British journal New Statesmen a day after Hosni... more “This is not an Islamic revolution,” declared the British journal New Statesmen a day after Hosni Mubarak was ousted from office in February 2011. Indeed, these upheavals did not bring theocratic regimes to power but certainly gave the political transitions that followed a religious flavour. They are all happening in Muslim Arab countries, where religious incursion into the political arena had previously been sharply limited or under rigorous control of state regimes. In this respect these changes fit in the post-1989 continuum of a surge in importance of “religious traditions and communities of faith” (J. Habermas, 2006). The role of religion in these transitions has at least three major implications: (1) that political parties with religious agendas have entered the political process, (2) that the mostly religious peoples of these countries want changes that are sanctified in accordance with their faith or, much less frequently, lack thereof and, hence, (3) that a new modus vivendi between official and popular Islam is in the making.
In the processes in all countries that erupted in 2011 religion played an important role but two of them stand out as opposing examples of the “end result” for religious parties: Egypt and Tunisia. The main Egyptian Islamist party is banned and since
December 2013 considered a terrorist entity, while its Tunisian counterpart came second in the October 2014 parliamentary elections and stands firm as a major political force. The sinusoidal paths through political process in the past four years of religiously-oriented parties in Egypt and Tunisia will then be examined. Based on the analysis of the post-1989 struggles between religion and the state, a particular emphasis will be put on the religious debates in the constitutional process, followed
by a brief comparative analysis of other transitions.
EuroMeSCo Paper N. 33, Apr 28, 2017
North Africa is experiencing the emergence of various Jihadist groups that are proving to be high... more North Africa is experiencing the emergence of various Jihadist groups that are proving to be highly capable of and effective in capitalising regional instability and advancing their political programmes and military operations at the expense of the on-going post-Arab uprisings political transition. In this context, the case of Tunisia is one of the most interesting and useful to study, both in terms of adaptation of a transitional regime to a new counter-terrorism strategy and of the influence that the EU could exert on the development of new policies in the security sector of a third country. The paper analyses EU’s counter-terrorism strategies in order to point out how the EU and its neighbourhood have traditionally dealt with violent extremist groups. Secondly, the paper focuses on how EU countries and Tunisia are responding to the terrorist threat. Finally, in order to better address the issue, the case study of Tunisia is analysed. The paper proposes some suggestions in order to develop a broader agenda the EU and regional stakeholders can pursue together in order to overcome these violent extremism threats.
Middle East Policy, Vol. 19, N. 4, pp. 140-154, Dec 2012
The first successful free and fair elections, held in October 2011, for the Constituent Assembly ... more The first successful free and fair elections, held in October 2011, for the Constituent Assembly and the formation soon after of a three-party ruling coalition1 seem to have set Tunisia squarely on the path towards democratization. Since then, very little attention has been paid to the country that kicked off the Arab Spring. Tunisian events have faded into the background of current affairs for two reasons. First, the focus has shifted to the fate of countries with greater geostrategic importance, such as Egypt, and with the potential of setting off a regional conflagration, such as Syria. Second, according to some scholars,2 Tunisia has already succeeded in its transition to democracy, although it has yet to consolidate its new institutions; therefore, not much can go wrong at this stage. Both reasons are valid to the extent that Tunisia is not a prominent regional actor and that its transition has indeed been smoother than those in Egypt, Yemen and Libya, where political volatility is higher. Thus, the media spotlight has moved to other countries. The little attention that Tunisia has received more recently has focused overwhelmingly on the emergence of the bogeyman of salafism.
Far from ushering in the triumph of liberal and secular democratic forces across the region, the Arab uprisings have led to the electoral success of Islamist parties and movements.3 This is no longer as problematic as it was in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when, for example, the Islamist party Front Islamique de Salut (FIS) was poised to take power in Algeria. Islamist movements have gone through a process of political moderation; many of them embrace the mechanisms of democracy and support basic human rights.4 However, the rise of Islamism in the wake of the Arab uprisings is not limited to what can be labeled mainstream Islamist parties deriving inspiration from the Muslim Brotherhood. Salafism, in its different strands, has surfaced as a potent political and social force, capturing a significant degree of attention and generating profound fear. In the capital and other cities around Tunisia, public rallies by thousands of salafist activists and supporters have occurred over the past 18 months and still take place today, raising fears that they might be the ultimate beneficiaries of the fall of Ben Ali and the inability of the current government coalition to solve the country's problems.
The rise of salafism in Tunisia has been both surprising and problematic. Unlike in Egypt or Yemen, there was very little evidence that such a phenomenon even existed in Tunisia. Policy analysts, secular politicians and civil-society activists still claim today that it is an imported phenomenon, completely extraneous to Tunisian political, intellectual and social history. It is also problematic because its public presence in a democratizing environment can, according to some, negatively affect the way in which Tunisia will build its new political system and deal with the question of its identity and core values.5 Surprise and wariness characterize as well the reaction of the international community, whose attitude towards salafism is extremely negative. It is perceived to pose a danger to liberal democracy and the stability of the international system.
Insight Turkey, Vol. 14, N. 3, pp. 65-83, Aug 2012
This paper analyzes the characteristics of the Turkish AKP (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi, the Justi... more This paper analyzes the characteristics of the Turkish AKP (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi, the Justice and Development Party) and the Tunisian Harakat al-Nahda (Renaissance Movement) using a comparative perspective. This analysis follows the recent rehabilitation of the Tunisian Islamist party after the fall of former President Zine al-Abidine Ben ‘Ali and its emergence as the leading political force in Tunisia after taking 89 out of 217 seats in the October 2011 elections for the Constituent Assembly. The aim of this analysis is to demonstrate that the so-called “Turkish model”—proposed by many scholars and analysts as an example that Tunisia and other countries in the region affected by regime change could follow—is not easily replicable in the post-Arab Spring context. There are three main reasons at different levels why the Tunisian case could be com- pared with the Turkish model. At the structural level, the secular nature of the Tunisian institutional context seems to be the closest one to the case of Turkey, particularly when compared to other Arab countries. Secondly, both countries possess an economic system that is sufficiently solid to allow for a significant level of political and institutional stability, the Tunisian post-revolution crisis notwithstanding. Finally, Tunisia, like Turkey, has a moderate Islamic party that aspires to become the leading actor in the democratic transition process. If it is true that Tunisia is the most similar case to that of Turkey across the Arab world, this comparison assumes an even greater significance. It follows that if the AKP model cannot be replicated in Tunisia, than it would be reasonable to assume that no other Arab country would be in a position to follow the Turkish path. The analysis focuses on the models of political Islam that have emerged
and developed in both Turkey and Tunisia, starting from the assumption that al-Nahda is in a phase of transformation and “institutionalization”, while the AKP has become a structured party whose political maturity is at its peak. In this regard it must be stressed that the article provides a preliminary theoretical framework to understand how the evolution of al-Nahda could occur within the new Tunisian context. It is difficult to compare al-Nahda and the AKP as the former looks more similar to the previous experiences of Turkish political Islam (until the Refah Party government experience in 1996-1997) than to the AKP itself, but there are structural bases for a comparison in so far as the “Turkish model” has been bandied about in Tunisia since the legalization of al-Nahda and even more so after its electoral success. Thus, it is important to take into account the official and traditional rhetoric of the Tunisian Islamist party while, at the same time, paying attention to the pragmatism that is leading al-Nahda to adapt itself to the post-Ben ‘Ali political landscape. In this paper the Tunisian and the Turkish case studies are examined and compared on three levels. First of all the historical and structural contexts of the two countries and the relationship between the state and Islam are taken into account. Secondly the two models of political Islam that have developed in Tunisia and Turkey are analyzed, noting that any particular way of interpreting a given culture or religion is conditioned by the socio-political system. Finally, the two different views of the social, political and economic life proposed by al-Nahda in Tunisia and by the AKP in Turkey are compared. After such an analysis, the article shows that the two models cannot be assimilated. On the contrary, they could even be seen as in competition. The AKP in fact could be perceived as an actor trying to expand its influence in the new context following the Arab Spring rather than as a model for their democratization processes. At the same time, al-Nahda could be regarded as an alternative model to the AKP for Arab countries, particularly in North Africa.
Rivista di Politica, N. 2, 2014, Rubbettino, 2014
In seguito alle rivolte che hanno portato alla caduta del regime di Ben ‘Ali, la scena politica d... more In seguito alle rivolte che hanno portato alla caduta del regime di Ben ‘Ali, la scena politica della Tunisia è stata inizialmente dominata dal partito islamico Ennahda. Dopo anni di repressione, quest’ultimo ha così avviato un processo di istituzionalizzazione, che lo ha reso uno dei principali attori politici protagonisti del processo di democratizzazione. Ciononostante, Ennahda non incarna l’unica forma di Islam politico in Tunisia. In parte come reazione al processo di inclusione di Ennahda e, dall’altro lato, come effetto del processo di liberalizzazione politica seguita alla caduta del regime, un’altra forma di Islam politico è gradualmente emersa: il salafismo. L’articolo ripercorre l’evoluzione – ideologica e strategica – dei movimenti salafiti in Tunisia,enfatizzandone le differenziazioni interne
British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 41, N. 4, pp. 517-518 , Oct 2014
Kurdistan, la nazione invisibile, Jun 2016
Diviso tra Turchia, Siria, Iraq e Iran, il Kurdistan rappresenta probabilmente uno degli scenari ... more Diviso tra Turchia, Siria, Iraq e Iran, il Kurdistan rappresenta probabilmente uno degli scenari geopolitici più caldi del Medio Oriente. È il territorio di un popolo, i curdi, che vanta più di trenta milioni di persone la più grande "nazione" senza Stato - e che si sta rivelando un attore cruciale della regione. Nelle recenti crisi mediorientali, infatti, il "fattore curdo" si è rivelato una costante fondamentale: dalle guerre in Iraq sotto Saddam Hussein alla lotta contro il cosiddetto Stato Islamico, dal ruolo nei delicati equilibri politici turchi al conflitto siriano. Senza dimenticare che il Kurdistan è una delle regioni più ricche di petrolio. Conoscere i curdi, distinguere le loro istanze autonomiste o indipendentiste, le priorità che ne guidano l'operato nei diversi contesti statali in cui si trovano a vivere, è quindi fondamentale per comprendere cosa stia avvenendo oggi. In questo volume si offre un primo approccio globale alla "questione curda" grazie all'apporto di studiosi internazionali e alla curatela dell'lSPl, uno dei più importanti istituti di ricerca europei.
Spread across Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran, Kurdistan is one of the hottest geopolitical areas in... more Spread across Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran, Kurdistan is one of the hottest geopolitical areas in the Middle East. It is a land inhabited by over 30 million people, representing one of the largest stateless "nations" worldwide. The Kurds play a crucial role in the region, and the so-called "Kurdish factor" has constantly been a key ingredient of recent Middle East crises: from the wars in Iraq under Saddam Hussein to the fight against the so-called Islamic State. Not to mention the strategic relevance that Kurdistan assumes as one of the oil-richest areas in the region. What new balances would an eventual victory of Kurds over IS create? What are the long-term goals of the Kurdish community? How to reach a solution to the Kurdish question able to satisfy all the actors involved? Can we envisage a common future for the Kurds or will they remain tied to the political destinies of the countries they live in? These are just some of the questions that this report tries to answer collecting contributions from leading international experts.
No attempt to define the Mediterranean as a region can overlook the multiplicity of political, re... more No attempt to define the Mediterranean as a region can overlook the multiplicity of political, religious and social forces at work along its shores. Responding to changes in the global and regional environment, these forces have interacted in complex ways, as evidenced by their impact on the social, cultural, and political life of the states explored in this volume. The peculiarity of the Mediterranean, as has been noted time and again, lies in its geographical position as a “sea in the middle of the land”, where different religions and cultures vie for recognition and self-expression.
In the wake of the popular uprisings that have inflamed the region, beginning in Tunisia in December 2010, a drastic reorganisation of their respective state systems is coming into focus in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya. Even in Morocco and Algeria, relatively untouched by such upheavals, popular discontent has led governments to introduce major political reforms. Though their paths do not run along parallel lines, they share a common denominator: the determination of their people to become the masters of their destinies, and to do so by grappling with new forms of democracy. Almost five years later, after their rulers became the target of violent mass protests, Tunisia, Egypt and Libya are going through an exceptionally difficult transition, trying to accommodate their nascent constitutional forms to the new forces inspired by the Arab Spring.
Egypt has reappeared again as a leading actor in the Middle East. After the fall of Mubarak, the ... more Egypt has reappeared again as a leading actor in the Middle East. After the fall of Mubarak, the rise to power of the Muslim Brotherhood and its ouster, the country has chosen its new ‘strongman’. Following the elections of al-Sisi, Egypt is back to pursuing a pro-active policy not only internally, but also in the neighbourhood. The restoration of the strategic axis with Saudi Arabia and the struggle against radical Islam are the two pillars of this new political phase. However, there are critical elements, too, from further deterioration of the political and civil liberties indexes, to the emergence of jihadist groups in the Sinai, to the enduring economic and financial difficulties. As a result of these changes, Europe and Italy should calibrate a new policy aimed at safeguarding their interests,especially from the points of view of security, stability and the fight against terrorism, also promoting more inclusive practices by the Cairo government vis-à-vis the opposition (including the Muslim Brotherhood) and developing policies which can help Egypt to respond to future challenges in terms of economic growth, poverty alleviation, demographic pressure and the creation of employment opportunities.
L’ascesa di IS in un vasto territorio tra Siria e Iraq e la competizione innescatasi all’interno ... more L’ascesa di IS in un vasto territorio tra Siria e Iraq e la competizione innescatasi all’interno della galassia jihadista della vecchia al-Qaida sembrano attivare dinamiche di concorrenza/coesistenza che hanno conseguenze molto rischiose per un’intera area geopolitica affetta da un’instabilità che già costituiva un terreno fertile per la proliferazione di gruppi radicali. La minaccia, che sta assumendo sempre più connotazioni di territorialità, sembra coinvolgere in particolare un vasto spazio di prossimità – che va dai Balcani sino al Maghreb – di grande interesse per l’UE e l’Italia in particolare.
Nella prima parte il Rapporto analizza la natura di questa minaccia e la sua reale portata, osservando quelle aree geopolitiche di permeabilità alla stessa in relazione agli attori locali e agli interessi italiani. Nella seconda si approfondiscono le implicazioni per la nostra politica estera e di difesa e sicurezza in senso ampio, cercando di fornire alcuni spunti di policy nell’ottica dell’azione internazionale dell’Italia.
17 dicembre 2010: il giovane ambulante tunisino Mohamed Bouazizi si dà alle fiamme per protestare... more 17 dicembre 2010: il giovane ambulante tunisino Mohamed Bouazizi si dà alle fiamme per protestare contro la polizia che aveva sequestrato la mercanzia che cercava di vendere per la strada. Quello che sembrava un episodio come tanti ha segnato, simbolicamente, l’inizio di una serie di cambiamenti epocali nell’area del Mediterraneo e del Vicino Oriente. Mentre in alcuni Paesi, come la Siria, si continua a combattere, in altri, come Tunisia, Egitto e Libia, regimi che credevamo oramai consolidati sono caduti, facendo emergere le enormi contraddizioni, ma anche le grandi speranze, di un mondo che, dall’altra parte del mare, abbiamo sempre giudicato ‘immutabile nel suo apparente immobilismo’. Cosa c’è davvero dietro alle piazze colme di giovani che inneggiano alla libertà e per questa hanno deciso di morire? Quali sono e da dove nascono storicamente le dinamiche che hanno dato vita alle rivolte? E soprattutto cosa accadrà ora che l’argine si è rotto e l’onda della ‘primavera araba’ sembra poter travolgere gli equilibri, già precari e complessi, della regione? Nulla sarà davvero più come prima? Sono domande a cui questo libro intende rispondere attraverso il contributo di studiosi che hanno analizzato sia i Paesi direttamente coinvolti dalle sollevazioni, sia gli attori regionali che, pur non essendone stati direttamente toccati, ne sono in qualche modo interessati, per cercare non solo di conoscere, ma anche e soprattutto di comprendere il senso delle rivolte arabe e i loro possibili esiti, per nulla scontati.
In appendice l'intervista a Malek Twal, Segretario generale del ministero delle riforme politiche del regno hascemita di Giordania.
Il libro si occupa di investigare le attuali direttrici della politica estera italiana, esponendo... more Il libro si occupa di investigare le attuali direttrici della politica estera italiana, esponendone i punti di forza e di debolezza in sei capitoli. La trattazione prevede un doppio canale, geografico e settoriale: sono state analizzate le caratteristiche dei rapporti politici e commerciali dell’Italia in quattro aree (Estremo Oriente, Balcani, Mediterraneo, Stati Uniti) nonché il concetto di interesse nazionale e l’importanza dell’approvvigionamento energetico. Il filo rosso che collega l’intera opera è rappresentato da un approccio originale alle relazioni tra l’Italia, l’Unione europea e gli altri partner continentali in un contesto di competizione globale. Pur partendo da solide convinzioni europeiste, gli autori desiderano rimarcare la persistente divergenza di interessi in merito ad alcuni aspetti sostanziali della politica estera. Al contempo, però, sono stati evidenziati i punti sui quali un’azione sinergica dei vari attori europei possa essere fruttuosa per tutti, dando vita ad una strategia win-win (mentre in altri casi si tratta di un gioco a somma zero tra i Paesi europei, nel quale al rafforzamento di un soggetto corrisponde l’indebolimento di un altro).
Atlante Geopolitico 2017, Apr 2017
Lo scopo di questo saggio è quello di fornire alcune chiavi di lettura che possano aiutare a ‘di... more Lo scopo di questo saggio è quello di fornire alcune chiavi di lettura che possano aiutare a ‘districarsi’ nel complesso panorama del jihadismo, attraverso un doppio binario comparativo temporale e spaziale. Da un lato, dunque, si ripercorrerà brevemente l’evoluzione del terrorismo di matrice islamica negli ultimi anni; dall’altro, si forniràun quadro della sua dimensione geografica. In entrambi i casi, sara possibile rintracciare gli elementi di differenziazione che segnano la trasforma- zione di questo fenomeno, che rimane legato alla regione mediorientale, ma che ha connota- zioni globali. Lungi dall’essere un mero esercizio retorico, tale ricostruzione puòrisultare utile per comprendere meglio la questione e inquadrarla all’interno delle attuali dinamiche politiche internazionali.
"Transformation in Tunisia: The First Five Years", edited by Wolfgang Mühlberger , Feb 2017
The political transition process that started in Tunisia in 2011 continues to move forward, albei... more The political transition process that started in Tunisia in 2011 continues to move forward, albeit against many obstacles. Among the major challenges to the stability of the country and to the consolidation of democratic institutions and practices, terrorism is definitely the most worrisome. The Jihadist threat jeopardises Tunisian security and the country has to adopt new strategies to combat it. Among the objectives of the new counter-terrorist strategies there is certainly that of adapting to new forms of Jihadism. To do this, it is essential to understand the factors and processes that led to the radicalisation of hundreds of young people. This has to be done from both the tactical/operational and ideological points of view. In the first instance, in order to better frame the evolving strategies and objectives of Tunisian Jihadist movements it is necessary to implement an effective response from the point of view of repression. However, it is even more important to intervene on the level of prevention. To do this, the contexts in which new forms of violent extremism arise must be understood and the causes identified, so that action can be taken before the processes of radicalisation occur. Finally, there is a need to focus on de-radicalisation programmes too, to recover and reintegrate into society individuals who have previously chosen the path of extremism. In implementing a comprehensive anti-terrorist strategy, an increased coordination effort between all the stakeholders is required. On the operational level, the army, the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of the Interior should coordinate with other economic and social ministries. At the political level, there is a need to clarify the responsibilities of the two major institutional actors, the Presidency of the Republic and the Prime Minister. The constitutional framework does not clearly establish the prerogatives of these two figures, thus creating a deadlock. Moreover, under this kind of institutional balance, the important issue of counter-terrorism is likely to be blocked due to any institutional clashes. Thus, the political contingency influences the effectiveness of the government action. Tunisia has to face all these challenges in order to deal with a constantly changing threat, which has deep roots in the socioeconomic context of the country. The chapter first analyses the evolution of the Jihadist threat in Tunisia, retracing the three phases that characterised the origins and development of home-grown terrorism. In the second part, it aims to give some policy indications on possible measures to be taken to fight terrorism.
Salafism After the Arab Awakening. Contending with People's Power, 2016
This chapter will trace the steps of the rise and the evolution of the Salafi mouvance in Tunisia... more This chapter will trace the steps of the rise and the evolution of the Salafi mouvance in Tunisia from its first public appearance to the first manifestations of jihadism that part of movement seems to have opted for, including the 2015 attacks in Tunis and Sousse. Particular attention will be paid to the dynamics of the relationship between the Ansar al-Shari‘a movement in Tunisia (AST) and the al-Nahda-led government; and to how government repression influences new developments in the practices of the Salafis in Tunisia.
Islamic State (IS) is only the most recent terrorist group to have found a place in Libya and ... more Islamic State (IS) is only the most recent terrorist group to have found a place in Libya and the Maghreb. The jihadist panorama in Libya is very broad. In recent years various Salafi jihadist networks have found refuge there. The months’ long period of extreme crisis in Libya has deep causes and distant origins, which range from a weak Libyan national identity to legacies from the civil war of 2011, which did not end with the death of Qaddafi and the fall of his regime. One of
the main and very concrete consequences of this instability has been the transformation of Libya into a failed state with a strong radical Islamist presence.
The semi-anarchic Libya is experiencing a very worrying phenomenon: it has quickly become a safe haven for local, foreign (i.e. Tunisian and Egyptian) and international jihadist groups, such as Al-Qaeda (AQ), Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and Islamic State (IS). The new regional scenario is fostering more assertive and more radical positions within Libyan jihadism, which is thought to be the target of external plots’ that aim to undermine its post-revolutionary achievements.
Stefano M. Torelli (ed.), "The Return of Egypt. Internal Challenges and Regional Game", ISPI, 2015, Jul 27, 2015
How to reconcile a European policy in the Mediterranean able to involve Egypt as a reliable part... more How to reconcile a European policy in the Mediterranean
able to involve Egypt as a reliable partner and, at the same time, to ensure the promotion of essential European values in the field of civil and political rights? Where and how can the EU act to incorporate Egypt into a process of regional integration and cooperation on issues of shared importance? How can the EU deal with its loss of leverage in Egypt and in the region as a whole? Will heads of member states continue to look the other way as private sector bilateral deals are signed with a military regime systematically targeting the rights of Egyptian citizens? For European policy makers these issues raise further questions related to broader foreign policy strategy, commitment to deeper democracy, and the kind of relationship we want to maintain with Egypt.
L'Italia e la minaccia jihadista. Quale politica estera? - ISPI, Milano, 2015
L’attentato contro il Museo del Bardo a Tunisi del 18 marzo 2015, che ha causato la morte di 24 p... more L’attentato contro il Museo del Bardo a Tunisi del 18 marzo 2015, che ha causato la morte di 24 persone, quasi tutti turisti, e di cui quattro di nazionalità italiana, avveniva quando il presente capitolo era già stato concluso. I fatti di Tunisi non fanno altro che ribadire la necessità che l’Italia prenda coscienza della minaccia jihadista presente anche al confine tra Algeria e Tunisia e di tutte le misure necessarie per tutelare i propri interessi, di natura economica e di sicurezza, in questa parte del Nord Africa.
The Arab Spring in Comparative Perspectives, S. Florensa (ed.), Joint Policy Study SSN-Eurmoesco, Mar 2015
“This is not an Islamic revolution,” declared the British journal New Statesmen a day after Hosni... more “This is not an Islamic revolution,” declared the British journal New Statesmen a day after Hosni Mubarak was ousted from office in February 2011. Indeed, these upheavals did not bring theocratic regimes to power but certainly gave the political transitions that followed a religious flavour. They are all happening in Muslim Arab countries, where religious incursion into the political arena had previously been sharply limited or under rigorous control of state regimes. In this respect these changes fit in the post-1989 continuum of a surge in importance of “religious traditions and communities of faith” (J. Habermas, 2006). The role of religion in these transitions has at least three major implications: (1) that political parties with religious agendas have entered the political process, (2) that the mostly religious peoples of these countries want changes that are sanctified in accordance with their faith or, much less frequently, lack thereof and, hence, (3) that a new modus vivendi between official and popular Islam is in the making.
In the processes in all countries that erupted in 2011 religion played an important role but two of them stand out as opposing examples of the “end result” for religious parties: Egypt and Tunisia. The main Egyptian Islamist party is banned and since
December 2013 considered a terrorist entity, while its Tunisian counterpart came second in the October 2014 parliamentary elections and stands firm as a major political force. The sinusoidal paths through political process in the past four years of religiously-oriented parties in Egypt and Tunisia will then be examined. Based on the analysis of the post-1989 struggles between religion and the state, a particular emphasis will be put on the religious debates in the constitutional process, followed
by a brief comparative analysis of other transitions.
ISPI e-book and reports, Oct 2014
Since the so-called Arab Spring erupted, the Middle East has undergone structural changes that h... more Since the so-called Arab Spring erupted, the Middle East has
undergone structural changes that have marked the beginning of a new phase in the region’s political landscape. Paradoxically, a trend that has clearly manifested itself – in addition to the attempts at political transitions – is the emergence of new jihadist movements challenging the ‘traditional’ al-Qa‘ida-dominated narrative. Probably one of the reasons explaining this phenomenon is the creation of new room for manoeuvre after the collapse of former regimes and the consequent
change in the balance of political and social forces in the field. At the same time, however, the tactics and characteristics of the new jihadist movements seem to have deeply changed, as well as their theatres of operation. Therefore, this article addresses the issue of jihadism in North Africa, highlighting its new features. In fact, if on the one hand ‘traditional’ movements like al-Qa‘ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) continue to operate, and countries such as Algeria continue to be the main target for the local jihadi, on the other hand Islamic radicalism has begun to manifest itself even in contexts that in past decades were
considered immune to local jihadism. In particular, Tunisia and Libya – albeit with varying intensity – have become two new centres of regional jihad activism in the Maghreb. The study of this phenomenon is even more interesting in the light of the fact that these are the two North African countries that had been most able to defeat radical Islam, or in which radicalism has not had a grip similar to that manifested in Algeria or in Egypt. As will be analysed, the Salafi jihadist groups now operating in Libya and Tunisia are heterogeneous, both in their nature and in their origin. Along with manifestations of home-grown religious extremism – as a consequence of individual contexts’ factors – there are also new networks that are being built in North Africa. AQIM has expanded its activities beyond the Sahel, especially in Tunisia, while Libya has become the new regional hub of jihadism, where groups from Tunisia itself and
from Egypt operate alongside the Libyan and can find refuge and new ways of organizing
Atlante Geopolitico Treccani 2014, Apr 2014
La Primavera araba. Origini ed effetti delle rivolte che stanno cambiando il Medio Oriente, Stefano M. Torelli, Michela Mercuri (eds.), Vita e Pensiero, Milano, Jul 2012
L’Egitto è stato, dopo la Tunisia, il secondo Paese in ordine cronologico ad essere stato testimo... more L’Egitto è stato, dopo la Tunisia, il secondo Paese in ordine cronologico ad essere stato testimone di un regime change in seguito alla stagione di rivolte che hanno interessato molte realtà arabe e che hanno rappresentato una stagione di cambiamenti politici e strategici nell’area, rinominata
‘primavera araba’. Se si analizzano in prospettiva storica la condizione strutturale dell’Egitto e gli avvenimenti interni degli ultimissimi anni, si può affermare che alcuni fattori, che hanno contribuito alle rivolte di piazza Tahrir, concorrevano già da tempo a creare una situazione di latente crisi interna, pronta a manifestarsi in tutta la sua criticità e, per alcuni versi, violenza. I fatti egiziani, dunque, non arrivano del tutto inaspettati
all’attenzione di chi ha osservato le dinamiche del Paese nel suo
percorso storico più recente. D’altro canto, la caduta del regime di Hosni Mubarak, saldamente al potere dal 1981, sembrava poter essere scongiurata dalla posizione peculiare che ricopre Il Cairo all’interno dello scacchiere mediorientale e della politica occidentale in tale regione. Il fatto che l’Egitto di Mubarak fosse uno dei perni della strategia politica statunitense in Medio Oriente e che, in virtù di tale considerazione, l’ex rais godesse di un ampio sostegno da parte degli Stati Uniti e degli attori
europei, aveva sempre indotto ad immaginare il sistema posto in essere da Mubarak come l’unico possibile per il governo del Paese. Il peso dell’Egitto e la sua influenza sugli altri attori arabi dell’area in termini culturali, politici, strategici ed economici, hanno giocato negli ultimi anni un ruolo fondamentale nel mantenimento dello status quo.
Italia, potenza globale? Il ruolo internazionale dell'Italia oggi, Dec 2012
Note Osservatorio di Politica Internazionale Camera e Senato, N. 54, Jan 2015
La Tunisia appare, ad oggi, l’unico paese dell’area mediorientale e nordafricana a portare avanti... more La Tunisia appare, ad oggi, l’unico paese dell’area mediorientale e nordafricana a portare avanti un lineare processo di transizione politica dopo le rivolte che hanno interessato il Nord Africa e altri paesi arabi tra la fine del 2010 e l’inizio del 2011. Nonostante il percorso della Tunisia verso la democratizzazione non risulti privo di ostacoli e sfide – che interessano i livelli socio-economico e di sicurezza –, in effetti si tratta di un caso che si potrebbe definire “di successo” all’interno delle transizioni
arabe in corso. Dopo tre anni dalla caduta del regime di Zine al-Abidine Ben ‘Ali, nel gennaio del 2014 l’Assemblea costituente tunisina ha approvato la nuova Costituzione. Ciò ha costituito il preludio per la formazione di un governo tecnocratico, che ha guidato il paese fino alle elezioni parlamentari e presidenziali dell’ottobre e del novembre-dicembre 2014. Queste ultime si sono svolte regolarmente, senza incidenti né accuse di brogli da ogni parte politica coinvolta nel processo di transizione. Tale
risultato, al di là dell’esito elettorale, fa ben sperare circa l’evolversi della situazione politico-istituzionale tunisina, sebbene alcune criticità potrebbero ancora costituire un fattore di incertezza per il futuro.
Osservatorio di politica internazionale Camera e Senato, N. 75, May 2013
Negli ultimi mesi il fronte del jihad è sembrato ridefinirsi attraverso nuove direttrici: dall’Ir... more Negli ultimi mesi il fronte del jihad è sembrato ridefinirsi attraverso nuove direttrici: dall’Iraq alla Siria e da qui verso l’Egitto e la Libia, attraversando il deserto dell’Algeria e del Mali sino alla parte settentrionale della Nigeria. Al-Qaeda ha subito rilevanti mutamenti nel corso della sua storia e oggi, certamente, non sembra esistere come unica organizzazione centralizzata, ma si contraddistingue per la capacità di ideare progetti indipendenti, accettare alleanze tattiche e convergenze con gruppi politici, soprattutto salafiti, che hanno obiettivi comuni, e
principalmente sembrano sfruttare l’instabilità dell’area nord africana, un’intera regione alle prese con una complessa transizione. Al-Qaeda non appare più come l’organizzazione monopolista del terrorismo islamico-radicale e comprenderne i confini risulta sempre più difficile. Diversi analisti – alla continua ricerca di etichette concettuali – l’hanno definita al-Qaeda 3.0.
Dopo la prima versione creata da bin Laden per la guerra dell’Afghanistan e la seconda “lanciata” con l’attentato dell’11 settembre 2001, e ancora molto focalizzata regionalmente (Afghanistan- Pakistan e poi Iraq), la terza versione sarebbe descritta come un’Idra con più teste e con un corpo comune costituito da informazioni, finanziamenti, combattenti, supporto logistico, basi comuni di addestramento e safe-heaven. Gli ultimi anni hanno segnato un irradiamento delle formazioni radicali islamiche in Africa. La fascia sahelo-sudanese immediatamente a
sud del Sahara è sempre stata una regione d’instabilità e insicurezza. Questo soprattutto per due motivi: da una parte, i processi di desertificazione e la difficile conciliabilità fra le esigenze degli stati costituiti e gli usi dei nomadi che non tollerano le frontiere; dall’altra, la difficile convivenza fra popolazioni musulmane e arabizzanti al nord e popolazioni nere e in parte cristianizzate al sud. A questa ragione storica d’insicurezza deve essere sommata l’accresciuta presenza di gruppi jihadisti. Il Sahara ha acquisito una nuova centralità geopolitica: l’attenzione si è polarizzata in particolare sul Mali e sull’intervento internazionale contro le formazioni radicali islamiche e secessioniste che ne hanno occupato il nord e che hanno proclamato lo stato dell’Azawad. Questa parte di Africa appare sempre più collegata al mondo arabo-islamico con i suoi problemi insoluti. Proprio la difficile transizione democratica in
Nord Africa ha aperto ai gruppi jihadisti nuove possibilità e campi d’azione, oltre che nuove connessioni, principalmente tramite la Libia e il Mali, tra la regione mediorientale e quella africana.
Terrorism Monitor, Vol. 14, Issue 4, Feb 24, 2017
About 800 suspected jihadists have returned to Tunisia from abroad, putting pressure on the Tunis... more About 800 suspected jihadists have returned to Tunisia from abroad, putting pressure on the Tunisian authorities and potentially undermining Tunisia’s political transition. The country is struggling to establish a comprehensive counterterrorism strategy and, beyond the immediate security concerns, institutional constraints are stymieing efforts to tackle domestic terror threats. Perhaps as a consequence, Tunisia has produced the highest number of foreign fighters — both in absolute terms and per capita — in the world. According to official data from the Tunisian interior ministry and the United Nations, since 2013, about 6,000 individuals left Tunisia to join jihadist groups, the majority joining Islamic State (IS) in Syria, Iraq and Libya. A further 12,000 have been prevented from travelling abroad. Recent public debate in Tunisia, however, has been focused on the issue of returning jihadists, with public opinion divided on suggestions of an amnesty for returnees.
ISPI Commentary, May 30, 2016
Tunisia is one of the key partners for Italian and European politics in the southern Mediterranea... more Tunisia is one of the key partners for Italian and European politics in the southern Mediterranean. At least, it should be so. The perception, on the other hand, is that most European partners have forgotten Tunisia. The reason is simple: the country had a relatively peaceful “revolution” if compared with other North African countries and five years after taking its path towards democracy this seems to be successfully launched. Unlike Libya or Syria, Tunisia is at peace. Where there is peace, there is no need to plan for long-term policies. In fact, this assumption is the exact negation of what a country like Italy should do to support democratic transitions in the Mediterranean.
Turkey is currently experiencing the paradox of being integrated into the western security and de... more Turkey is currently experiencing the paradox of being integrated into the western security and defense system, while not sharing some of the most basic western objectives.
ISPI commentary, Mar 22, 2016
Dopo gli attentati del 13 novembre scorso a Parigi, il terrore torna in Europa, in quello che è i... more Dopo gli attentati del 13 novembre scorso a Parigi, il terrore torna in Europa, in quello che è il suo simbolo istituzionale e politico: Bruxelles. Gli attentati contro l’aeroporto di Zaventem e la stazione della metropolitana di Maelbeek (non lontano dai luoghi fisici delle istituzioni europee) avvengono soltanto quattro giorni dopo l’arresto – sempre a Bruxelles – di Salah Abdeslam, il ricercato numero uno d’Europa per via del suo ruolo proprio negli attacchi di Parigi. Da un lato, come era del resto stato sottolineato da diverse voci, era impensabile illudersi che dopo quell’arresto la scia jihadista in Europa si sarebbe fermata. Dall’altro lato, gli attentati di Bruxelles, alla pari di quelli avvenuti a Parigi, ci impongono delle serie riflessioni sia sulla natura degli attori che stanno attaccando l’Europa, sia sui loro scopi. Ma, soprattutto, ci impongono una riflessione sul tipo di risposta che i governi europei devono dare di fronte alla minaccia jihadista.
As Tunisian jihadists with Islamic State (IS) in Libya come under increasing military pressure fr... more As Tunisian jihadists with Islamic State (IS) in Libya come under increasing military pressure from local and international forces, they appear to be returning home with the intention of capturing territory. That manifested itself this month in the attack on the border town of Ben Guerdane, the first IS insurgency-style attack to hit Tunisia.
The Ben Guerdane attack is a worrying development for the Tunisian authorities who, while experiencing some success utilizing the security forces against domestic terrorists, still lack a comprehensive strategy to tackle radicalization.
LSE - Eurocrisis in the press , Mar 16, 2016
On 10 March, the European Parliament voted in favor of a measure allowing Tunisia to export yearl... more On 10 March, the European Parliament voted in favor of a measure allowing Tunisia to export yearly 35,000 tons of olive oil tax-free in the European Union, for two years. That is, Tunisia will be allowed to export to the EU 70,000 tons of olive oil between 2016 and 2017 with no further duties. The decision has attracted much criticism from associations of local farmers, especially in Italy. The Italian Minister of Agricultural Policies, Maurizio Martina, spoke against the decision, because it would damage the Italian olive oil sector. The controversy prompts us to reflect on the policy options the European Union has towards the Southern Mediterranean countries. Furthermore, it shows how much gap there exists at national level between political slogans – even the most populist ones – and concrete action(s).
Durante e subito dopo l’avvento delle cosiddette Primavere arabe, la domanda che era tornata a ri... more Durante e subito dopo l’avvento delle cosiddette Primavere arabe, la domanda che era tornata a ricorrere in maniera quasi ossessiva era: “il mondo arabo è compatibile con la democrazia?”. Niente come tale quesito, spesso riproposto in salsa cultural-religiosa (“l’Islam è compatibile con la democrazia?”), risulta privo di senso, se l’obiettivo è quello di immaginare come possa evolvere la situazione politico-istituzionale nei paesi arabi. In effetti, non ha senso interrogarsi sulla presunta compatibilità o meno di queste realtà (come di altre) con le pratiche democratiche, se non si chiariscono prima alcuni concetti fondamentali per questo tipo di analisi. Prima di tutto, occorre specificare cosa si intenda per “democrazia” e attraverso quali processi evolutivi si possa arrivare a una forma di governo che possa essere definita tale. In secondo luogo, è bene riflettere sull’efficacia di sistemi che potrebbero essere a prima vista democratici, in contesti che presentano oggettive problematicità che vanno ben oltre la presenza o meno di istituzioni democratiche. Infine, nel voler ergersi a valutatori del grado o meno di democrazia che si è raggiunto – o che potenzialmente potrà essere raggiunto – in questi paesi, sarebbe bene considerare un altro fattore che, spesso viene tralasciato come se non fosse importante: il tempo. È possibile decretare il successo o il fallimento di un processo di democratizzazione dopo uno, due, cinque anni? O, piuttosto, occorre armarsi di pazienza e prendere coscienza del fatto che ogni analisi, in questo momento, può essere soltanto parziale?
ISPI Commentary, Nov 14, 2015
Parigi si scopre nuovamente vulnerabile alla furia cieca del terrorismo di matrice islamica e, co... more Parigi si scopre nuovamente vulnerabile alla furia cieca del terrorismo di matrice islamica e, come la Francia, tutta l’Europa deve sentirsi sotto attacco, dal momento che gli attentati di ieri sono chiaramente diretti contro tutto il continente e non solo contro il popolo e il governo francesi. A testimoniarlo, del resto, sono le diverse rivendicazioni (sulla cui veridicità bisogna essere ancora molto cauti) e dichiarazioni in rete di gruppi legati allo Stato islamico (IS), secondo cui i prossimi bersagli saranno Londra, Roma, Berlino e le altre capitali europee. Ciò che abbiamo davanti, dunque, più che un singolo attentato appare una vera e propria azione di guerra contro l’Europa e l’Occidente. Con un doppio scopo: colpire e terrorizzare l’Europa e, con un po’ di utopia in più, nel lungo termine, giungere alla “conquista” dei territori europei all’interno del sedicente Califfato. Secondo alcune interpretazioni, dunque, saremmo ormai entrati ufficialmente nella “fase due” del progetto islamista globale: l’espansione diretta in Europa. Tutto ciò appare a tratti sconvolgente, a tratti del tutto surreale, mentre alcune voci, all’interno dei confini europei, ritengono tale scenario addirittura ineluttabile, qualora la risposta non fosse adeguata, pronta ed efficace. Proprio l’individuazione di una risposta efficace quanto razionale a quanto sta accadendo sembra essere uno dei nodi più difficili da sciogliere. L’Europa deve rispondere con forza? Se sì, contro di chi? Con quali mezzi? Per quale scopo? E, per rispondere a tali quesiti, occorre prima di tutto cercare di comprendere la natura della minaccia che si ha di fronte, le sue caratteristiche, i suoi obiettivi e le sue cause profonde.
Muftah, Jul 10, 2015
On May 20, 2015 Italian authorities arrested Abdelmajid Touil, a Moroccan citizen accused of taki... more On May 20, 2015 Italian authorities arrested Abdelmajid Touil, a Moroccan citizen accused of taking part in the March 18 attack on the Bardo Museum in Tunis, Tunisia. Touil is accused of immigrating illegally to Italy, where he allegedly began planning the Bardo assault. He is also accused of directly participating in the event, and returning to Italy shortly thereafter.
Touil’s arrest has sparked a series of questions about North African migration to Italy, the jihadist threat to the country coming from the Mediterranean’s southern shore, and Italy’s increased vulnerability to this violence as a result of Touil’s arrest. But, as the facts surrounding Touil’s case make clear, the Italian state is no more vulnerable to terrorism than it was before his arrest. This is largely because there is little reason to believe Touil master-minded the Bardo attack, let alone directly participated in the incident.
ISPI Commentary, Jun 29, 2015
Fino a tre anni fa gli analisti e gli studiosi non avevano dubbi: le rivolte in Tunisia, Egitto, ... more Fino a tre anni fa gli analisti e gli studiosi non avevano dubbi: le rivolte in Tunisia, Egitto, Libia, Siria e altri paesi, assurte alle cronache come le cosiddette “Primavere arabe”, erano viste come il vero punto di rottura che avrebbe ridisegnato gli equilibri regionali in maniera radicale. E, in effetti, la questione che più tiene banco oggi nel Vicino Oriente può anche essere vista come una conseguenza – più o meno diretta – di quelle rivolte. Ma, al contrario dei sentimenti che nel 2011 erano maggioritari, il nodo attuale non suscita speranze, ma scenari cupi. Con l’inarrestabile ascesa dello Stato Islamico (IS) e la proclamazione del sedicente Califfato, il Medio Oriente ha di fronte a sé – anzi, al suo interno – un nuovo ingombrante attore parastatale. Lo Stato Islamico minaccia gli stessi confini della regione mediorientale, così come erano stati definiti dopo le due guerre mondiali del secolo scorso. A distanza di un anno dalla proclamazione del Califfato, dunque, è con questo fenomeno che si devono fare i conti ed è in parte come conseguenza della sua comparsa che le potenze regionali ridisegnano le proprie alleanze e progettano le loro politiche.
ISPI Dossier - Turchia al voto: all'AKP vincere non basta, Jun 4, 2015
Un nuovo protagonista potrebbe emergere dalle elezioni politiche che si terranno il prossimo 7 gi... more Un nuovo protagonista potrebbe emergere dalle elezioni politiche che si terranno il prossimo 7 giugno in Turchia. Il partito filo-curdo Hdp (Partito democratico del popolo) potrebbe, infatti, superare l’altissima soglia del 10% ed entrare in Parlamento, modificandone in parte gli equilibri. A differenza di altre tornate elettorali, il partito pro-curdo che si presenta alle urne nel 2015 ha caratteristiche diverse, che nella retorica si distaccano dalla sola battaglia per i diritti della minoranza curda. Per molti analisti il partito del giovane leader Selahattin Demirtas rappresenta una variante turca di altri movimenti che si stanno imponendo in Europa, come Podemos in Spagna e Syriza in Grecia. Un partito, dunque, che si pone come il garante di tutte le minoranze politiche e sociali, con particolare attenzione anche alle questioni di genere e ai diritti delle comunità omosessuali, oltre che alle istanze anti-liberaliste. Sarà proprio per questa connotazione, in un periodo di particolare censura delle dissidenze in Turchia, che l’Hdp potrebbe raggiungere un risultato storico ed entrare in Parlamento con più di 50 seggi (il minimo di seggi spettanti a chiunque superi la soglia del 10%). D’altro canto, però, è difficile negare le sue origini curde e, nonostante Demirtas provi ad allargare i temi della campagna elettorale anche ad altre questioni, è proprio sulla vicinanza alla comunità curda che l’Akp ha puntato per screditarlo agli occhi degli elettori.
Terrorism Monitor, The Jamestown Foundation, May 29, 2015
In recent months, a number of incidents have brought attention to the possible threat to Italy fr... more In recent months, a number of incidents have brought attention to the possible threat to Italy from cells or individuals linked to the Islamic State. For instance, since mid-April, some pictures of self-proclaimed Islamic State supporters have been circulating on the web, in which Italy was threatened in written messages held in front of symbolic places such as the Colosseum in Rome and the Duomo in Milan. Also in recent months, a Moroccan citizen was arrested near Milan over his involvement in the attack against the Bardo Museum in Tunis last March. This article seeks to assess to what extent these events constitute a serious security threat against Italy.
ISPI Analysis, N. 284, Apr 2015
La tragedia avvenuta nel Canale di Sicilia, con circa 700 persone che si teme abbiano perso la vi... more La tragedia avvenuta nel Canale di Sicilia, con circa 700 persone che si teme abbiano perso la vita nell’ennesimo naufragio su un barcone partito dalla Libia, mette in evidenza tutti i limiti delle politiche europee sull’immigrazione. Fino a oggi, infatti, l’Unione Europea non è stata in grado di fornire una risposta comune ed efficace all’emergenza dei flussi migratori e, allo stesso tempo, i singoli governi nazionali non riescono ad affrontare la questione da soli, come evidenziato dalle difficoltà della stessa Italia di fronte ai continui sbarchi. È evidente che l’emergenza ha assunto dimensioni sempre più grandi, il cui trend non sembra destinato a scendere, dal momento che la questione è legata al perpetrarsi di crisi di sicurezza e istituzionali ai confini diretti del Mediterraneo.
Terrorism Monitor, The Jamestown Foundation, Vol. 13, Issue 2, Jan 2015
The threat from Tunisian jihadists is not only confined to Tunisia and that Tunisian radicals may... more The threat from Tunisian jihadists is not only confined to Tunisia and that Tunisian radicals may also pose a danger to third party countries, particularly if operating in conjunction with local al-Qaeda affiliates such as AQIM and other groups such as the Islamic State.
Jadaliyya, Oct 25, 2014
Tunisia will go to the polls on 26 October in order to decide the composition of the new parliame... more Tunisia will go to the polls on 26 October in order to decide the composition of the new parliament and the new political balance that will determine the next phases of political transition. Since the uprising, there have been many and important steps toward real political and institutional change. Indeed, Tunisia has undergone a process of policy change involving the liberalization of political landscape, the subsequent participation of new political forces in the electoral process, the marginalization of the radical fringes, a dramatic rise in the levels of civil and political rights, and the adoption of a new constitution. Moreover, this process has taken place through national dialogue between the most important political actors, with civil society actors, such as the Tunisian General Labor Union (UGTT), at the center of these talks.
ISPI Commentary, Sep 10, 2014
Sono passati 13 anni da quell’11 settembre che ha cambiato la percezione globale del terrorismo e... more Sono passati 13 anni da quell’11 settembre che ha cambiato la percezione globale del terrorismo e della minaccia rappresentata dall’Islam radicale. Un evento che, letto con il senno di poi a distanza di anni, sembra aver rappresentato in maniera esemplare la teoria del cigno nero, proposta dal filosofo Nassim Nicholas Taleb, secondo la quale eventi di proporzioni fuori dal normale, che accadano improvvisamente e in maniera imprevedibile, possono far cambiare la percezione di un fenomeno, attraverso un processo di reazione collettiva che va oltre la normale comprensione – o assimilazione – dei fatti. L’11 settembre, a ben guardare, ha rappresentato per il mondo intero – e per l’Occidente in particolare – proprio quel cambiamento di percezione, che avrebbe portato ad affrontare la questione del terrorismo, soprattutto di matrice islamica, in maniera a volte confusa, irrazionale e, soprattutto, con una reazione guidata da male interpretazioni, equivoci e fraintendimenti del fenomeno. E, nell’isteria collettiva dei governi e delle opinioni pubbliche, l’11 settembre ha generato una serie di falsi miti che, ancora a distanza di anni, si sono autoalimentati e diffusi nel tempo, contribuendo a una lettura errata dei fatti.
Terrorism Monitor, The Jamestown Foundation, Vol. 12, Issue 11, May 2014
Tunisia has implemented a new counter-terrorism strategy since Joma’a has assumed the office of p... more Tunisia has implemented a new counter-terrorism strategy since Joma’a has assumed the office of prime minister. As in the past, this policy requires regional (Algeria and Libya) and international (France and the United States) cooperation. However, despite the banning of AST, jihadi attacks on the border with Algeria continue, indicating the presence of active cells. Moreover, in recent months a new concern has arisen concerning the connections between Tunisian and Libyan jihadist elements in conjunction with the deterioration of the security situation in Libya. Tunis has ordered the deployment of a further 5,000 troops on the border with Libya and there is some evidence indicating infiltration attempts by militants in Tunisia from Libya are ongoing (Libya Herald, May 18). If so, this would create a new combat frontline to for Tunisian counter-terrorism efforts in addition to the existing frontline on the border with Algeria.
Jadaliyya, Apr 30, 2014
In the intricate network of bilateral and regional relations involving countries in the Middle Ea... more In the intricate network of bilateral and regional relations involving countries in the Middle East and the Maghreb, and in the cross-diatribes between Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Egypt, and other non-state actors, Tunisia is slowly trying to diversify its foreign policy vectors. As Prime Minister Mehdi Jomaa is conducting its first visit to Paris, it appears that the previous visit to Washington had been even more important. Jomaa’s visit to the United States between 2 and 4 April is an example of how the current transitional government is trying to promote Tunis outside the region. At the same time, the visit highlights Tunisia’s current priority: fundraising in order to help the country come out of its current socio-economic crisis.
The Jamestown Foundation - Terrorism Monitor, May 31, 2014
Tunisia has implemented a new counter-terrorism strategy since Joma’a has assumed the office of p... more Tunisia has implemented a new counter-terrorism strategy since Joma’a has assumed the office of prime minister. As in the past, this policy requires regional (Algeria and Libya) and international (France and the United States) cooperation. However, despite the banning of AST, jihadi attacks on the border with Algeria continue, indicating the presence of active cells. Moreover, in recent months a new concern has arisen concerning the connections between Tunisian and Libyan jihadist elements in conjunction with the deterioration of the security situation in Libya. Tunis has ordered the deployment of a further 5,000 troops on the border with Libya and there is some evidence indicating infiltration attempts by militants in Tunisia from Libya are ongoing. If so, this would create a new combat frontline to for Tunisian counter-terrorism efforts in addition to the existing frontline on the border with Algeria.
Terrorism Monitor - The Jamestown Foundation, Vol. 12, Issue 1, Jan 9, 2014
2013 marked the return of terrorism to Tunisia. Since the middle of the year, terrorist incident... more 2013 marked the return of terrorism to Tunisia. Since the
middle of the year, terrorist incidents have occurred with
greater frequency and now pose an alarming threat to the
safety of Tunisia. During the first half of 2013, the Tunisian
security forces were the target of several jihadist attacks,
especially in the mountainous area of Jebel Chaambi, on
the border with Algeria. This phase, which cannot yet be
declared completed, reached its peak with the terrorist attack
of July 29, 2013 that resulted in the death of eight soldiers, the
worst terrorist attack in recent years in Tunisia. The Tunisian
government, with the Ministry of the Interior in the front
row, has repeatedly accused the Salafist Ansar al-Shari’a in
Tunisia (AST) movement to be responsible for the attacks,
but failed to provide evidence.
This input statement will discuss the reasons behind the phenomenon of university-based politics ... more This input statement will discuss the reasons behind the phenomenon of university-based politics starting from a cross-time analysis within the Tunisian case. Against this background, it will also try to understand how the current identity conflict within Tunisian universities could be solved.
Il cosiddetto "modello turco" è stato chiamato in causa come possibile esempio da seguire per i P... more Il cosiddetto "modello turco" è stato chiamato in causa come possibile esempio da seguire per i Paesi arabi interessati dalle rivolte del 2011. La comparazione è stata avanzata soprattutto per i due attori -Tunisia ed Egitto -che, rispetto ad altri come Libia, Yemen e Siria, sono già stati testimoni di un cambio di regime. Il presente articolo intende fornire una definizione di cosa sia davvero il "modello turco", contestualizzandolo dal punto di vista geografico e temporale e, in seguito, comparando le sue caratteristiche strutturali con quelle di Tunisia ed Egitto. Ciò che emerge da una simile analisi comparata è l'impossibilità attuale di mettere in correlazione gli eventi tunisini ed egiziani con il percorso compiuto dalla Turchia -e dal suo partito di ispirazione islamica, AKPnegli ultimi trent'anni. In particolare, si sosterrà che non possono essere solo la questione dell'Islam politico e della sua dimensione pubblica a determinare l'eventualità o meno che il "modello turco" possa essere perseguito in altri contesti. La presenza dell'Islam politico -e il suo rapporto con le istituzioni -è solo una delle variabili che hanno concorso alla formazione del modello turco, che a sua volta è il risultato di un lungo processo di cambiamenti politici, economici e sociali. Solo questi ultimi hanno potuto garantire la transizione democratica della Turchia e, con il tempo, favorire la nascita di un Islam politico turco sui generis. Il "modello turco" appare, dunque, come un processo, che i Paesi arabi in transizione devono ancora percorrere.
The risk index of Middle East and North African countries (MENA) created by Equilibri was conceiv... more The risk index of Middle East and North African countries (MENA) created by Equilibri was conceived as a helpful tool to differentiate between the most unstable states in the MENA zone. The objective was to elaborate on the crucial elements in the economic, political, and social sphere and from this to deduce the major or minor risks which individual countries in this area face in the near future.
This document is based around an index created by data taken for the most part in the present, but also with a short term future projection and can give useful indications on problems belonging, not only to individual nations, but also to the entire region in question. As all the indexes, this index is not ‘scientific’ but asks to be read as a useful source of knowledge based on Equilibri’s interpretation of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern region. An exact and binding precision takes into account the external factors that can contribute to determining possible unstable situations, or maintaining the status quo: not being quantifiable at this stage, this index does
not take them into account. Instead, the index reveals the
structural state of individual countries upon which, external
factors can eventually interact with, to stabilize them or the opposite.
Over the past six years, Tunisia has been testing new avenues of political order. Democratic inst... more Over the past six years, Tunisia has been testing new avenues of political order. Democratic institutions have emerged, underpinned by a new constitution. However, the entrenched elites defend their acquired taste for preferential treatment, slowing down democratisation in the name of fighting jihadist terror. Weak economic growth and persistent regional disparities continue to fuel discontent, translating into frustration with the expected results of the democratic experiment. On top of that, rifts between Islamists and non-Islamists tend to polarise politics, making it difficult to chart a consensual way forward. Overall, the transition features several elements of hybridity and fragility, remaining in many aspects a work in progress and producing a significant number of uncertainties, in instances where the state should lead and reassure. Accordingly, institutional consolidation risks being undermined by growing contempt for the state and the emerging political system. Against this complex backdrop of issues, the Joint Policy Study provides an overview of the essential features and challenges of the transition, crystallised in four pivotal problem areas, each covered by renowned subject matter experts.