Eberhard Zangger | Luwian Studies (original) (raw)

Luwian Culture by Eberhard Zangger

The Ancient Near East Today, 2023

Troy stands out in the popular imagination thanks to Homer's Iliad. However, in archaeological te... more Troy stands out in the popular imagination thanks to Homer's Iliad. However, in archaeological terms Troy may seem like an isolated outpost in the northeastern Aegean at a time when the cultural powerhouses were far to the south, in the Mycenaean and Minoan cultures. But Troy was hardly alone; who were its neighbors? What was the nature of the Anatolian side of the Aegean during the Middle and Late Bronze Age (c. 2000-1200 BCE)? Did it have an independent culture or was it an economic and political wilderness? These are some of the questions addressed by our recent study of Middle and Late Bronze Age Western Anatolia. And what is the role of the still not fully understood Luwian culture?

Popular Archaeology, 2022

A recently published scientific study argues that Troy was not an isolated outpost on the wrong –... more A recently published scientific study argues that Troy was not an isolated outpost on the wrong – non-European – side of the Aegean Sea. Instead, the study claims, the city was embedded in a long-lasting and influential culture, which, however, has hardly been investigated so far. An international team of archaeologists, geoarchaeologists and experts in geographic information systems (GISs) spent a full twelve years combing through the almost exclusively Turkish archaeological literature to find out which settlements from Troy’s heyday in the second millennium BCE are already known today. For this purpose, 33 archaeological excavations in western Turkey were recorded and evaluated, as far as they touched the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1700–1200 BCE). The results of 30 archaeological surveys in an area equivalent to twice the size of Ireland were also evaluated. This has resulted in a catalog of 477 settlements known today, all of which are more than 100 meters in diameter. For each of these 477 sites, 30 physio-geographical parameters were determined to perform quantitative analyses with the help of GIS. The research confirms the existence of the Luwian culture, already postulated in 2016 in a preliminary publication, a culture that until today is not indicated on maps. In addition, the study allows quantifiable statements about site selection and economic practices at that time.

The Political Geography of Western Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age, 2022

This article gives an overview of archaeological research regarding the settlements of the Middle... more This article gives an overview of archaeological research regarding the settlements of the Middle and Late Bronze Age (approx. 2000–1190 BCE) in western Asia Minor. Most of the 33 excavations and 30 surface surveys outlined here are based on initiatives by Turkish researchers and were carried out between 1950 and 2021. The resulting catalog currently includes 477 large (>100 m diameter) settlement sites in the region west of an imagined north-south line between Eskişehir and Antalya which we have recorded with their geographic coordinates. The second millennium BCE states in western Anatolia, to which these settlements belonged, have thus far been considered to be culturally, economically, and politically less important than the contemporary Minoan, Mycenaean, and Hittite cultures on Crete, mainland Greece, and in Central Asia Minor. The size and number of these settlements, however, in combination with the fact that a distinct script, Luwian hieroglyphic, was maintained over a period of well over a millennium, prove the existence of a rich indigenous Anatolian culture, one that differs considerably from its well-studied neighbors. Future efforts to reconstruct the economic and political developments at the time of the Hittite Kingdom (approx. 1650–1190 BCE) should give greater consideration to western Asia Minor. The subsequent kingdoms of Lydia and Phrygia are likely to have based their economic wealth and political influence to some extent on the preceding Late Bronze Age resources, infrastructures, and cultural achievements in this region.

Archaeolingua Series Minor 45, 2022

This book contains most of the papers presented at the session of the same title held during the ... more This book contains most of the papers presented at the session of the same title held during the annual meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists in Bern in September 2019. Although we know of numerous Bronze Age archaeological sites in western Asia Minor, including some very large ones, remarkably little archaeological fieldwork has been done to uncover these sites and to illuminate their role in relation to their surroundings and other sites. Contemporary texts also suggest that the region was of great political and military importance, and that associations and states such as Assuwa, Arzawa and, toward the end of the thirteenth century BCE, Tarhuntassa seriously challenged Hittite hegemony over Anatolia.
“This volume aims to present a major step forward in our understanding of Late Bronze Age western Anatolia; its peoples, languages and cultures and the region’s position vis-a-vis contemporary states in the Near East and the eastern Mediterranean.” From the foreword by Jorrit Kelder

Ege Yayınları, Istanbul, May 2016

Aegean protohistory suffered from a bias when the field was conceived 100 years ago and subsequen... more Aegean protohistory suffered from a bias when the field was conceived 100 years ago and subsequent research has never questioned the fundamental paradigms of the discipline. As a consequence, only one third of the Aegean coasts have thus far been attributed to well-defined ancient cultures. This leaves tremendous opportunities for current and future generations of archaeologists – on the somewhat neglected eastern side of the Aegean. Practically all contemporary sources indicate that Late Bronze Age petty states used to form military alliances. The Assuwa league, mentioned in Hittite texts from around 1400 BCE, is a good example, but so are the mercenary forces mustered by Muwatalli and the various accounts of united tribes from the Aegean (aka “Sea Peoples”) and even – in later recollections of past events – Homer’s catalogues of ships and Trojan contingents. "The Luwian Civilization" argues that such a coalition of the petty states in western Asia Minor may have succeeded in bringing down the Hittite hegemony over central Asia Minor.

Ege Yayınları, Istanbul, November, 2021

“Cretan hieroglyphic is very much influenced by Luwian hieroglyphic – almost 75 percent of the si... more “Cretan hieroglyphic is very much influenced by Luwian hieroglyphic – almost 75 percent of the signary of Cretan hieroglyphic consists of Luwian hieroglyphic.”
“There is no question about the values of the signs in Linear A – they are almost the same as in Linear B. It is indeed very easy to read Linear A, there are no challenges: you fill in the signs, look up the Semitic words and then you are able to translate the text.”
“In Byblos, people invented a new provincial style of writing Egyptian hieroglyphic. It was these newly invented signs which were then also adapted for the Byblos script. Byblos script documents were written in a pure Semitic dialect closely related to Ugaritic.”
“The cylinder seals in Cypro-Minoan script reflect economic registration since the Hittite overlords were anxious to charge taxes. The system used for economic registration is the same that we already know from the lead strip with Luwian hieroglyphic inscription that was found in Kayseri-Kululu in central Anatolia.”
“Etruscan is basically a seventh century Luwian dialect. The Liber Linteus, a whole book in Etruscan, is a manual for priests. The language of the enigmatic Lemnos Stele is closely related to Etruscan, but it is not identical; it has dialectal features.”
“Carian, Etruscan and Lycian are all Luwian dialects! Etruscan is indeed very closely related to the Carian language, and both are ultimately derived from Luwian hieroglyphic."

TALANTA – Proceedings of the Dutch Archaeological and Historic Society, 2018

In addition to numerous fabricated documents the estate of the British prehistorian James Mellaar... more In addition to numerous fabricated documents the estate of the British prehistorian James Mellaart (1925–2012) also contained Mellaart’s tracing of several Luwian hieroglyphic inscriptions, including a particular prominent one. Mellaart said this inscription was found in 1878 in the village of Beyköy, approximately 34 kilometers north of Afyonkarahisar in western Turkey. A number of stones made up a frieze about 29 meters in length and 35 centimeters in height. It evidently took a few attempts until the correct sequence of the elements was established. The inscription contains 50 phrases and would thus rank as the longest known Bronze Age hieroglyphic document. It says that it had been commissioned by great king Kupantakuruntas of Mira to commemorate his deeds, and in so doing it provides a detailed account of his realm and conquests. The text dates back to the upheavals of the Sea Peoples, ca. 1190–1180 BC. It relates the maritime conquests in the eastern Mediterranean under the command of great prince Muksus from the Troad. The western Anatolian naval forces proceeded all the way to Ashkelon in southern Palestine, bordering on Egypt.

Talanta, Proceedings of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society 50, 2018

Given that James Mellaart forged numerous documents which he claimed were of Late Bronze Age orig... more Given that James Mellaart forged numerous documents which he claimed were of Late Bronze Age origin, the authenticity of the Luwian hieroglyphic texts retrieved from his estate inevitably has to be re-examined. However, the inspection of Mellaart’s study (see Zangger’s contribution “Mellaart’s Fantasies”, this volume, pp. 125-182) yielded no proof that Mellaart had fabricated these Luwian hieroglyphic texts, the most prominent of which was Beyköy 2. The complexity of the grammar, the many idiosyncrasies and the severity of Mellaart’s misunderstandings of the text virtually rule out the possibility that he himself fabricated this document. It never changed in appearance while it was in Mellaart’s possession. He did not alter even a single letter of the attempted translation that he attributed to Alkım. On the other hand, four different stages of arrangements were needed before the order of the blocks was correct. If the document was falsified, there are a number of idiosyncrasies suggesting that the forger must have been a fool; at the same time there are intricacies that would have required the forger to have been a highly-skilled linguist. What is more, the text contains expressions which were not known in 1989, when Beyköy 2 was first publicly presented. For instance, the title of “great prince” was discovered only much later in the rock reliefs at Latmos. Among the most important indications that Beyköy 2 was not a fake created by Mellaart are his utter misinterpretations of the contents. Mellaart lacked the skills to interpret the texts, translated a number of phrases wrongly, and missed even the gist of the document. As a consequence, there is enough reason to assume that the Luwian hieroglyphic inscriptions from the Mellaart files, and particularly the Beyköy 2 text, are not falsifications but genuine discoveries.

Theme: Interpreting the archaeological record: artefacts, humans and landscapes The political geo... more Theme: Interpreting the archaeological record: artefacts, humans and landscapes The political geography of western Anatolia in the LBA, and the region's interaction with its neighbours, in particular the Balkan Whilst we know of numerous Late Bronze Age (c. 1700-1200 BC) sites, including a number of very sizable ones, in western Anatolia, remarkably little archaeological fieldwork has focused on uncovering these settlements and establishing their role visa -vis their surroundings. Contemporary texts similarly indicate that the region was of a major political and military importance, and that individual states and federations may have ultimately challenged Hittite hegemony over Anatolia. Yet most text books largely ignore the region's importance, and consider it as a conflict zone between the two great powers to its west (Mycenaean Greece) and east (Hatti). This session invites presentations that aim to redress this situation. We are particularly interested in papers where evidence from various relevant disciplines, including archaeology, philology, linguistics, and geology/geo-archaeology are combined and compared. The session aims to contextualize the role of western Anatolia during the LBA and the interactions with its neighbours (including Greece, central Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, Cyprus, and the Balkan), by inviting papers discussing fieldwork results as well as new interpretations of available archaeological and philological evidence. The session aims to present western Anatolia not simply as buffer zone between other regions and states, but as a region with its own socio-political and cultural developments, that was fully integrated in the LBA world. Proposals for papers may be submitted here: https://submissions.e-a-a.org/eaa2019/

archäologie-online.de, 2022

Warum erscheint Troja wie ein isolierter Außenposten ganz oben im Nordosten der Ägäis, wenn sich ... more Warum erscheint Troja wie ein isolierter Außenposten ganz oben im Nordosten der Ägäis, wenn sich doch damals das kulturelle Geschehen viel weiter im Süden abspielte, nämlich im minoischen Kreta und innerhalb der mykenischen Kultur am südlichsten Ende des Balkans? Wen zählten die Trojaner eigentlich zu ihren Nachbarn? Wie muss man sich die Besiedlung auf der anatolischen Seite der Ägäis um 1200 vor Christus vorstellen? Gab es dort eine eigenständige Kultur oder handelte es sich in wirtschaftlicher und politischer Hinsicht sozusagen um Brachland? Welche Voraussetzungen müssen überhaupt erfüllt sein, um von einer eigenständigen Kultur zu sprechen, und unter welchen Umständen darf eine solche auch auf einer Karte eingetragen werden? Fragen dieser Art wirft eine soeben veröffentlichte Studie über das mittel- und spätbronzezeitliche Westanatolien auf.

Mitteilungen aus dem Heinrich Schliemann Museum, Ankershagen, 2016

A catalogue of Middle and Late Bronze Age sites in western Asia Minor is currently established in... more A catalogue of Middle and Late Bronze Age sites in western Asia Minor is currently established in the framework of a project supported by the University of Zurich. By the end of 2016, information about at least 340 sites will be available online and thus accessible to researchers and the general public. The sites’ coordinates have been entered into a Geographic Information System to analyze human-landscape interrelations. The sites are systematically registered for the first time and brought into context with rivers, lakes, arable floodplains, ore deposits, and trade routes. These settlements provide evidence that western Asia Minor was densely inhabited during the 2nd millennium BCE. A network of petty states and cities existed between the Mycenaean civilization on mainland Greece and the Hittite civilization in central Anatolia.

Ege Yayinlari, Istanbul, Nov 7, 2016

Als vor rund einem Jahrhundert die Ägäische Frühgeschichte als Forschungsdisziplin entstand, war ... more Als vor rund einem Jahrhundert die Ägäische Frühgeschichte als Forschungsdisziplin entstand, war das Denken der Protagonisten in der Archäologie noch stark von eurozentrischen Vorurteilen geprägt. Die anschliessende Forschung hat diese grundlegenden Lehrmeinungen nie hinterfragt. So kommt es, dass heute nur etwa ein Drittel der Ägäisküsten frühgeschichtlichen Kulturen zugewiesen werden – der Rest ist nur wenig erforscht. Dadurch bieten sich heute hervorragende Möglichkeiten für Archäologen, wenn sie ihr Augenmerk auf das kaum untersuchte Ostufer der Ägäis richten. Viele Quellen weisen darauf hin, dass die spätbronzezeitlichen Kleinstaaten hin und wieder militärische Bündnisse eingingen. Das in hethitischen Texten um 1400 v. Chr. erwähnte Assuwa-Bündnis wäre ein Beispiel, ebenso wie die vom hethitischen Grosskönig Muwatalli versammelten Söldnerheere und die Berichte über als "Seevölker“ vereinte Stämme aus der Ägäis. Selbst in späteren literarischen Erinnerungen an vergangene Ereignisse, wie Homers Ilias, spielen solche Bündnisse (die Schiffskataloge und die trojanischen Kontingente) eine wichtige Rolle. Das Buch "Die luwische Kultur“ argumentiert, dass es einer solchen Koalition von Königreichen in Westkleinasien gelungen sein könnte, die hethitische Hegemonie zu brechen.

Haber Sol online, 2022

Geçtiğimiz eylül ayının başında (2 ve 3 Eylül 2022) Muğla-Milas’ta sessiz sedasız bir sempozyum y... more Geçtiğimiz eylül ayının başında (2 ve 3 Eylül 2022) Muğla-Milas’ta sessiz sedasız bir sempozyum yapıldı: 13. Karia, Karialılar ve Mylasa Sempozyumu. Aslında, adından da anlaşılacağı gibi bu, konusunda yıllık toplantı serisine dönüşmüş, her yıl Milas’ta toplanan bir tür çalışma serisinin on üçüncüsüydü. Bu yılki toplantıya ağırlıklı olarak Türkiye’den olmak üzere, 14 ülkeden, 40’tan fazla bilim insanı katıldı ve bildiri sundu.

Sempozyuma bildiri sunan bilim insanlarından biri de, Almanya’nın ünlü Der Spiegel haftalık politik dergisi tarafından Antikitenin Einstein’ı ilan edilmiş olan, jeoarkeolog Dr. Eberhard Zangger’di. Dr. Zangger’in bu sembolik unvanı alması, Antik Ege’ye olan hayranlığı değil, aslını Antik Yunan ve Roma dünyasına bağlayan Avrupamerkezci ideolojiyi derinden sarsan, efsanevi metropol Atlantis’in, Bronz Çağı Troyası’ndan başka bir yer olamayacağı tezi. Türkçede, “Atlantis Troya’dır” başlığıyla yayımlanmış olan kitabında bu tezini oldukça detaylı bir biçimde anlatıyor.

Dr. Zangger aynı zamanda kendi olanaklarıyla 2014 yılında kurduğu, Luvi Çalışmaları Vakfı’nın başında ve büyük bir özveriyle arkeoloji dünyasına farklı bir bakış açısı veren çalışmalarını dünyanın dört bir yanında sürdürüyor. Dr. Zangger’in Atlantis efsanesinden yola çıkarak Troya’da somutlaştırdığı tezi, son 30 yılda, Batı Anadolu’da yaptığı jeolojik ve arkeolojik (jeoarkeolojik) çalışmalarla, daha önce hiç üzerinde durulmamış, görmezden gelinmiş derin bir Bronz Çağı kültürü üzerinde ısrarla durmaya evrilmiş. Bunun politik ve ideolojik yanları üzerinde ayrıca kafa yormayı ihmal etmemiş. Bizim de, Milas sempozyumunu fırsat bilip kendisine ulaşarak -ki, “Atlantis Troya’dır”ın Türkçede yayımlanmasından itibaren kendisini izlemekteyiz- yaklaşık üç saatlik bir söyleşi koparmamızın asıl nedeni bu.

Dr. Zangger’in Luviler üzerine yaptığı çalışmaların sonuçları kesinlikle politik olarak nitelenecek verilere bağlanıyor ve bizce, emperyalizmin kültür üzerinde hegemonya kurma hamlesine karşı son derece değerli bir direnç noktasını bize kazandırıyor. Söyleşi dışı sohbetimizde zaten kendisi de marksist dünya görüşünü benimsediğini ifade etmiş ancak politik söylemi, üzerinde çalıştığı bilimsel disipline karıştırmamaya olabildiğince özen gösterdiğini vurgulamıştı.

Biz de bu ilkesine saygı gösterip söyleşiyi politik bir zemine çekerek bundan kendi savlarımızı destekleyen sonuçları öne çıkartmak yerine, söyleşide de izleneceği gibi, bulgular üzerindeki politik saptamaları kendi adımıza ifade ettik ve kendisi de bunlara itiraz etmeyerek bir bakıma kendi bulgularının ve tezlerinin bizim önermelerimizle uyum içerisinde olduğunu onaylamış oldu.

Söyleşinin akışını engellememek için, söyleşide geçen önemli kavramları, adları kutular içerisinde kısa bilgilendirmeler şeklinde ayrıca verdik. Elbette ana metinde olup da okur açısından açıklık kazanmamış detaylar kalmıştır. Bunları da bu söyleşinin başlatacağını düşündüğümüz tartışma zeminine gelecek sorular, talepler ışığında, “Emperyalist Kültür Hegemonyası ve Mücadelemiz” başlığı altında ilerletmeyi planladığımız dosyalar serisinde karşılamayı hedefliyoruz.

Arkeoloji ve Sanat, 2023

Kültürel güç merkezinin çok daha güneyde, Balkanlar'ın en güneyindeki Miken kültüründe ve Girit’t... more Kültürel güç merkezinin çok daha güneyde, Balkanlar'ın en güneyindeki Miken kültüründe ve Girit’teki Minos uygarlığında olduğu bir zamanda, Troya neden Kuzeydoğu Ege’de ıssız bir karakol gibi görünüyor? Troya’nın gerçek komşuları kimlerdi? Orta ve Son Tunç Çağı’nda (MÖ 2000-1200) Ege’nin Anadolu yakasındaki bölgenin yapısı nasıldı? Bağımsız bir kültürü var mıydı, yoksa ekonomik ve politik açıdan ıssız bir bölge miydi? Bir kültürün özellikleri nelerdir ve onu mesela bir harita üzerinde belirtmek ne zaman gereklidir? Bunlar, Orta ve Son Tunç Çağı’ndaki Batı Anadolu hakkındaki yeni bir çalışmanın ele aldığı sorulardan bazılarıdır.

Ege Yayınları, Istanbul, 2019

ISBN 9786059680875

İdil Sanat ve Dil Dergisi, Sep 8, 2016

Batı Anadolu'da Orta ve Geç Bronz Çağı’na tarihlendirilen yerleşim merkezleri ile ilgili bir kata... more Batı Anadolu'da Orta ve Geç Bronz Çağı’na tarihlendirilen yerleşim merkezleri ile ilgili bir katalog oluşturmak amacıyla Zürih Üniversitesi tarafından desteklenen bir proje hazırlanmıştır. Bu en az 340 yerleşim merkezi ile ilgili bilgilere herkesin ulaşabileceği bir websitesi 2016 yılı sonu itibariyle hazır olacaktır. Batı Anadolu’da Orta ve Geç Bronz Çağı’na tarihlendirilen yerleşim merkezleri ilk defa olarak sistematik bir şekilde kaydedilirken, bunların akarsular, göller, ekilebilir alanlar, maden yatakları ve ticaret yolları ile bağlantılarıda ortaya konulacaktır. İnsan ve çevre ilişkilerini en iyi şekilde analiz etmek amacıyla yerleşim merkezlerinin koordinatları ile ilgili bir Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemi oluşturulacaktır. Bu yerleşim merkezleri Batı Anadolu’da MÖ. 2. binyıl boyunca yoğun olarak yaşanıldığı konusunda en önemli kanıtdırlar. Bunlar aynı zamanda Yunanistan anakarasında kurulu Miken Uygarlığı ile Orta Anadolu'da bulunan Hitit Uygarlığı arasında kalan bölgede, bölgesel küçük devletler ve şehirlerden oluşan siyasi bir ağın varlığınada işaret etmektedirler.

TALANTA – Proceedings of the Dutch Archaeological and Historic Society, 2018

İngiliz prehistoryen James Mellaart’ın (1925–2012) evinde, içlerinde özgün çizimi Fransız arkeolo... more İngiliz prehistoryen James Mellaart’ın (1925–2012) evinde, içlerinde özgün çizimi Fransız arkeolog Georges Perrot tarafından 1878 yılında yapılmış olan büyük yazıtın kopyası da olan, çeşitli Luvi hiyeroglif yazıtlarına ilişkin Mellaart’ın kopya çizimleri bulunuyordu. Batı Anadolu’daki Afyonkarahisar’ın 34 kilometre kuzeyindeki Beyköy’de, yapı malzemesi arayışındaki köylüler tarafından yerden bazı taşlar bulunmuştu. Bu taşlar birleştirildiklerinde 29 metre genişliğinde ve yaklaşık 35 santimetre yüksekliğinde bir friz oluşturmaktaydılar. Perrot henüz üzerlerindeki simgeleri okuyamadığı için, taşları yanlış sırada yerleştirdi. Perrot yazıtı kayıt ettikten sonra, köylüler taşları yeni inşa edilen caminin temeline yerleştirdiler. Luvi hiyeroglifleri deşifre edildikten sonra, Perrot’un çizimlerinin 19. yüzyılda Osmanlı Devleti’nin sahip olduğu yayınlanmamış belgelere odaklanmış olan bir Türk-Amerikan araştırma projesi kapsamında ele alınması planlanıyordu. Türk arkeolog Uluğ Bahadır Alkım ölümünden kısa süre önce (1981) yazıtın içeriğinin taslak çevirisini yaptı ve taşları doğru sırasına göre dizdi. – Beyköy yazıtı 50 cümlecik içerir ve böylece bilinen en uzun Tunç Çağı hiyeroglif belgesi durumundadır. Batı Anadolu kaynaklı bilinen tüm belgelerden daha önemli bir konumdadır. Yazıt Mira’nın büyük kralı Kupantakuruntas tarafından yazdırılmıştır. Yazıt kralın kahramanlıklarını kutlamakta ve böylece bölgesine ve fetihlerine ilişkin ayrıntılı bilgiler vermektedir. Metnin yazılış tarihi yaklaşık MÖ 1190-1180 arasında, Deniz Kavimlerinin yarattığı kargaşa dönemine denk gelir. Yazıt Troadlı büyük prens Muksus’un komutasında Doğu Akdeniz’de yürütülen fetihlerden söz etmektedir. Batı Anadolulu deniz güçleri güney Filistin’deki Aşkelon’a, Mısır sınırına kadar ilerlemişlerdir. Bu seferlerin hatırası Yunan edebi geleneğinde Mopsos’la ilgili efsanevi hikayelerde korunmuştur. Özetle, Beyköy’de bulunmuş olan Luvi hiyeroglif metni bize bölgenin tarihinde şu ana kadar karanlıkta kalmış bir döneme ilişkin büyüleyici bir içgörü kazandırmaktadır. Yazıt Mellaart’ın evinde bulunmuş olan üç önemli Luvi hiyeroglif belge ve dört kısa parça ile birlikte çoğaltılmıştır. Makalede bu belgeler bir arada tartışılacaktır.

Archaeoastronomy by Eberhard Zangger

The Ancient Near East Today, 2021

Taken together, the Yazılıkaya sanctuary symbolizes the cosmos in its entirety, earth, heaven, an... more Taken together, the Yazılıkaya sanctuary symbolizes the cosmos in its entirety, earth, heaven, and underworld. This cosmos extends around a center, the meridian or the axis mundi, and reflects the paradigmatic work of the gods when order was created and space was divided – in this case into three cosmic levels with the circumpolar constellations being distinguished in the upper most level of the sky. Yazılıkaya even allows the transition from one cosmic region to another: from heaven to earth and from earth to the underworld, similar to what is known from Sumerian cosmology.

Popular Archaeology, 2021

In June 2021, for the first time, an international team comprising archaeologists, astronomers, a... more In June 2021, for the first time, an international team comprising archaeologists, astronomers, and ancient historians put forward a plausible explanation for the meaning of each of the more than 90 artistically carved reliefs of mythical figures and anthropomorphic deities of the Hittite rock sanctuary at Yazılıkaya. They posit that the rock sanctuary symbolizes the cosmos as the Hittites imagined it. The reliefs illustrate the three main elements of cosmic order: the earth, the sky, and the underworld. They show how these levels, and thus all portions of the cosmos, were populated by deities. In the Ancient Near Eastern belief system, the cosmic order was stabilized through constant renewal, with celestial regularities setting the pace. Renewal occurs when after a dark and cold night the sun rises to bring a bright and warm day; when from a dark moon a full moon gradually waxes; and when the withering away of vegetation and the inhospitable winter months are succeeded by blooming plant cover of spring and summer. Yazılıkaya reflects these cosmic cycles so systematically that the sanctuary could still be used as an accurate calendar.

Popular Archaeology, 2019

A re-investigation of the enigmatic monumental rock-cut sanctuary suggests a new interpretation o... more A re-investigation of the enigmatic monumental rock-cut sanctuary suggests a new interpretation of the ancient site. Yazılıkaya appears to be the place where the Hittite priests kept their calendar. They most likely indicated the current day, month, and year with moving markers in the form of stone or wood columns. Proceeding in this way they could determine the most important dates of the year: New Year, the solstices, the equinoxes, and monthly festivals. After all, with the Hittites never missing an opportunity to serve one of their countless deities, the priests had the challenge of setting the dates for as many as 165 festivals per year.

The Ancient Near East Today, 2023

Popular Archaeology, 2022

The Political Geography of Western Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age, 2022

Archaeolingua Series Minor 45, 2022

Ege Yayınları, Istanbul, May 2016

Ege Yayınları, Istanbul, November, 2021

TALANTA – Proceedings of the Dutch Archaeological and Historic Society, 2018

Talanta, Proceedings of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society 50, 2018

archäologie-online.de, 2022

Mitteilungen aus dem Heinrich Schliemann Museum, Ankershagen, 2016

Ege Yayinlari, Istanbul, Nov 7, 2016

Haber Sol online, 2022

Arkeoloji ve Sanat, 2023

Ege Yayınları, Istanbul, 2019

ISBN 9786059680875

İdil Sanat ve Dil Dergisi, Sep 8, 2016

TALANTA – Proceedings of the Dutch Archaeological and Historic Society, 2018

The Ancient Near East Today, 2021

Popular Archaeology, 2021

Popular Archaeology, 2019

The Ancient Near East Today, 2020

Probably the best depiction of the Hittite pantheon is preserved just outside the city walls of H... more Probably the best depiction of the Hittite pantheon is preserved just outside the city walls of Hattuša in the rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, one of the most fascinating archaeological sites in the world and a world heritage site. For almost two centuries, scholars have been puzzled by the procession of over ninety deities and mythical figures carved into the vertical faces of the natural limestone outcrop. Without doubt, this place was of outmost importance in Hittite religion; but what exactly were priests and the royal family celebrating at this spot? We distinguished four groups among the 63 preserved reliefs of deities in Chamber A, beginning with twelve identical male gods on the west wall at the entrance. These, in our view, were used to count the twelve lunar months of a year – an idea that had already been brought forward in 1973 by the ancient historian Friedrich Cornelius. Next, to the right, is a group of thirty deities, which we interpret as keeping track of the days of a lunar month (alternating between 29 and 30 days). Since a lunar year comprises 354 days (12 times 29.5), a leap month had to be inserted approximately every three years in order to keep the lunar calendar synchronized with the seasons.

Journal of Skyscape Archaeology, 2019

Regular celestial events assumed remarkable significance for the cultic rituals of the Hittite ci... more Regular celestial events assumed remarkable significance for the cultic rituals of the Hittite civilisation (c. 1600-1180 BC) in central Asia Minor. Numerous texts found at the capital Ḫattuša relate to solar deities and celestial divination reminiscent of Old Babylonian astronomical and astrological practices. Here we suggest that the rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, which was considered one of the holiest places in the Hittite kingdom, had a calendrical function. It contains more than 90 rock-cut reliefs, dating to the second half of the thirteenth century BC, of deities, humans, animals and mythical figures. The reliefs in Chamber A are arranged in groups to mark the days, synodic months and solar years. Using this system, the Hittite priests were able to determine when additional months were required to keep lunar and solar years aligned. The astronomical and astrological interpretation of Yazılıkaya serves as a point of departure for a brief re-examination of celestial aspects in Hittite religion.

Journal of Skyscape Archaeology, 2021

Evidence of systematic astronomical observation and the impact of celestial knowledge on culture ... more Evidence of systematic astronomical observation and the impact of celestial knowledge on culture is plentiful in the Bronze Age societies of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Europe. An interest in astral phenomena is also reflected in Hittite documents, architecture and art. The rock-cut reliefs of 64 deities in the main chamber of Yazılıkaya, a Hittite rock sanctuary associated with Ḫattuša, the Hittite capital in central Anatolia, can be broken into groups marking days, synodic months and solar years. Here, we suggest that the sanctuary in its entirety represents a symbolic image of the cosmos, including its static levels (earth, sky, underworld) and the cyclical processes of renewal and rebirth (day/night, lunar phases, summer/winter). Static levels and celestial cyclicities are emphasised throughout the sanctuary - every single relief relates to this system. We interpret the central panel with the supreme deities, at the far north end of Chamber A, as a reference to the northern stars, the circumpolar realm and the world axis. Chamber B seems to symbolise the netherworld.

Harmony and Symmetry - Celestial Regularities Shaping Human Culture, 2020

The Hittite rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya in central Anatolia contains over ninety rock-cut relief... more The Hittite rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya in central Anatolia contains over ninety rock-cut reliefs of deities, humans, animals, and mythical figures dating to the second half of the 13th century B.C. The site's function has thus far remained enigmatic. We suggest that the reliefs in Chamber A are arranged in groups for the purpose of keeping track of lunar months, the days of a lunar month, and years. By marking the days and synodic months, the Hittite priests were able to determine when additional months were required to keep lunar and solar years aligned. Keeping track of time was imperative for the Hittites priests to ensure that the many annual festivals fall into the appropriate seasons.

Cultural Astronomy & Ancient Skywatching – Proceedings of the 28th Annual Meeting of the European Society for Astronomy in Culture (SEAC), 6-10 September 2021, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria, edited by Penka Maglova and Alexey Stoev, 2023

In 2019 it was proposed that the rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, which is considered one of the hol... more In 2019 it was proposed that the rock sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, which is considered one of the holiest places in the Hittite kingdom, had a calendrical function (Zangger & Gautschy, 2019). The 64 preserved rock-cut reliefs of deities in Chamber A can be arranged in groups to mark the days, synodic months and solar years. This arrangement was made in order to keep track of synodic months and solar years and/or to display an accurate date during monthly and annually recurring festivals (Demirel 2017). Here we aim to elaborate on three questions not addressed at the outset: Firstly, why do the figures used for counting the days (Reliefs 13-41) differ in character, whereas those for counting months (Reliefs 1-12) and years (Relief 46a-63) are virtually identical with each other? Secondly, what is the meaning (technically or metaphorically) of the main panel (Reliefs 42-46)? Thirdly, how can the symbolism of Chamber B be interpreted?

Archäologie Online, 2021

Das Yazılıkaya-Heiligtum symbolisiert den Kosmos in seiner Gesamtheit: Erde, Himmel und Unterwelt... more Das Yazılıkaya-Heiligtum symbolisiert den Kosmos in seiner Gesamtheit: Erde, Himmel und Unterwelt. Dieser Kosmos erstreckt sich um ein Zentrum, den Meridian oder die axis mundi, wodurch der paradigmatische Akt der Götter symbolisiert wird, wie sie aus dem Chaos Ordnung schufen und den Raum aufteilten – in diesem Fall in drei kosmische Ebenen mit besonderer Betonung der höchsten Himmelsregion. In Yazılıkaya ist es sogar möglich, von einer kosmischen Region in eine andere zu wechseln: vom Himmel zur Erde und von der Erde zur Unterwelt, so wie es auch aus der sumerischen Kosmologie überliefert ist.

Archäologie Online, 2019

Yazılıkaya war demnach der Ort, an dem die hethitischen Priester den Kalender führten. Aller Wahr... more Yazılıkaya war demnach der Ort, an dem die hethitischen Priester den Kalender führten. Aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach markierten sie den Tag, den Monat und das Jahr mit beweglichen Zeigern in Form von Säulen aus Stein oder Holz. So ließen sich die wichtigsten Zeitpunkte des Jahres bestimmen: die Sonnenwenden, die Tagundnachtgleichen, der Jahresanfang und die Monatsfeste. Insgesamt galt es bis zu 165 Festtage pro Jahr zeitlich zu verankern, denn die Hethiter ließen keine Gelegenheit aus, ihre zahllosen Gottheiten zu ehren.

Milliyet Arkeoloji Dergisi, 2022

Eski Mezopotamya ve Mısır’daki birçok tapınak gibi kozmosu simgeleyen Yazılıkaya, Hitit dininde g... more Eski Mezopotamya ve Mısır’daki birçok tapınak gibi kozmosu simgeleyen Yazılıkaya, Hitit dininde gökyüzünden yeryüzüne ve yeryüzünden yer altı dünyasına geçişe izin veren özel bir yerdir.

Arkeolojik Haber, 2019

Yazılıkaya Hitit rahiplerinin takvimlerini tuttuğu yer olarak görünmektedir. Büyük olasılıkla gün... more Yazılıkaya Hitit rahiplerinin takvimlerini tuttuğu yer olarak görünmektedir. Büyük olasılıkla güncel gün, ay ve yılı, taş ya da tahtadan yapılmış gösterge sütunlarını hareket ettirerek işaretliyorlardı. Bu yöntemle bir yıldaki en önemli günleri belirleyebilirlerdi: Yeni Yıl, gündönümleri, ekinokslar ve aylık bayramlar. Hititler sayısız tanrılarına hizmet etmek için hiçbir fırsatı kaçırmazlardı, bu yüzden de rahipler için bir yıl içinde sayıları 165’i bulan bayramların tarihini doğru olarak tayin etmek büyük bir zorluktu.

Yazılıkaya eski Mezopotamya ve Mısır'daki diğer birçok tapınak gibi kozmosu simgelemektedir. Bura... more Yazılıkaya eski Mezopotamya ve Mısır'daki diğer birçok tapınak gibi kozmosu simgelemektedir. Burada farklı olarak, bir bina inşa edilmemiş, ancak kozmosun görüntüsü doğal ortama aktarılmıştır. Başlangıçta, kozmik düzen kaosu yenmiş ve böylece göksel düzen tarafından belirlenen zamanın döngüsel doğasını oluşturmuştur. Bu kozmik düzen Yazılıkaya'da (takvim şeklinde) vurgulanmaktadır. Her şeyden önce, kozmik düzen açıkça yapılandırılmış ögelerde yansıtılır. Örneğin insanların yaşadığı yeryüzü ve üzerlerindeki gökyüzü.

Journal of Skyscape Archaeology, 2019

Gökyüzü olayları Küçük Asya'nın merkezindeki Hitit uygarlığının (y. MÖ 1600-1180) kült törenlerin... more Gökyüzü olayları Küçük Asya'nın merkezindeki Hitit uygarlığının (y. MÖ 1600-1180) kült törenlerinde dikkate değer bir öneme sahipti. Başkent Hattuša'da, güneş tanrıları ve Eski Babil'deki astronomi ve astroloji uygulamalarının kalıntısı olan göksel kehanetlerle ilgili çok sayıda metin bulunmuştur. Bu makalede krallığın en kutsal yerlerinden biri olan Yazılıkaya açık hava tapınağının takvimsel amaçlara hizmet ettiğini öneriyoruz. MÖ on üçüncü yüzyılın ikinci yarısına tarihlenen tapınak doksandan fazla kayaya oyulmuş tanrı, insan, hayvan ve mitolojik varlık rölyefi içermektedir. A Odasındaki rölyefler günlere, sinodik aylara ve güneş yıllarına işaret etmek üzere gruplandırıl-mışlardır. Hitit rahipleri bu sistemi kullanarak, ay yılı ile güneş yılını eşitlemek için ek ay gerekip gerekmediğini belirliyorlardı. Yazılıkaya'nın astronomi ve astroloji açısından yorumlanması, Hitit dininin göksel yönlerini kısaca gözden geçirmek için bir çıkış noktasıdır.

Journal of Skyscape Archaeology, 2021

Mısır, Mezopotamya ve Avrupa’daki Tunç Çağı toplumlarında sistematik astronomik gözlem ve göksel ... more Mısır, Mezopotamya ve Avrupa’daki Tunç Çağı toplumlarında sistematik astronomik gözlem ve göksel bilgilerin kültür üzerindeki etkilerine dair çok sayıda kanıt vardır. Gökyüzü olaylarına duyulan ilginin, Hitit belgeleri, Hitit mimarisi ve sanatında da yansımaları bulun-maktadır. İç Anadolu’daki Hitit başkenti Ḫattuša yakınındaki Yazılıkaya açık hava tapınağında, 64 tanrının rölyefleri tapınağın ana odasındaki kayaya oyulmuştur. Bu rölyefleri günleri, sinodik ayları ve güneş yıllarını gösterecek şekilde gruplandırmak mümkündür. Burada, Yazılıkaya kutsal alanın tümünün kozmosun sembolik bir görüntüsünü temsil ettiğini öne sürüyoruz. Kozmosun durağan kademeleri (örneğin yeryüzü, gökyüzü, yeraltı dünyası) ve yenilenmenin, yeniden doğuşun döngüsel süreçleri (örneğin gündüz/gece, yaz/kış) bu temsile dâhildir. Tapınağın her yerinde durağan kademeler ve göksel döngüsellikler vurgulanmaktadır – tapınaktaki her bir rölyef bu sistemle ilgilidir. Merkez paneli, A Odası’nın en kuzey ucundaki ulu tanrılar ile birlikte, kuzey yıldızlarına, dolaykutupsal âleme ve dünyanın eksenine bir referans olarak yorumluyoruz. B Odası’nın ise yeraltı dünyasını simgelediği görülmektedir.

Agriculture in Ancient Greece, 1992

Although paleofertility and -climate cannot be directly determined from the soil record, geoarcha... more Although paleofertility and -climate cannot be directly determined from the soil record, geoarchaeological reconstructions of landscape stability and destabilisation in Greece reveal the soil quality and its history of use and abuse. Studies of the Argive Plain, the Southern Argolid and Thessaly show how rapid climatic change at the end of the last Ice Age did not result in any landscape destabilisation. Widespread soil erosion began in these regions, however, after the introduction of agriculture. It thus appears to be human-induced.

Past and Present Soil Erosion, 1992

The first post-glacial events of soil erosion occurred time-transgressively in different parts of... more The first post-glacial events of soil erosion occurred time-transgressively in different parts of Greece. Regardless of the area of observation, the earliest Holocene phase of soil instability has been most significant with respect to the quantity of moved material. Furthermore, human clearance of the natural vegetation on slopes, accompanying the introduction of widespread agriculture, appears as the most likely cause of the first landscape instability. Later soil erosion occurred with increasing frequency and decreasing magnitude, since most fragile soil had already been washed away. New data from the Berbati-Limnes area provide striking evidence in support of a human cause of prehistoric deforestation and soil erosion at the Neolithic/Early Bronze Age transition. The first seeds of agricultural communities arose in the Argive hinterland during the Middle Neolithic. By the Final Neolithic/Early Bronze Age transition their number had increased by a factor of five. Subsequently, during Early Helladic II, it soared even more dramatically. A pollen diagram from the coastal swamps near Lerna records a drastic decline of the formerly dense oak forests in favor of Hornbeam (Carpinus) and evergreen shrubs and trees which coincided with the population increase at 4000-3000 BCE. The palynological evidence by itself argues unequivocally for a strong human impact on the natural vegetation ultimately resulting in large-scale soil erosion.

Journal of Field Archaeology, 1991

Soil erosion resulting from human exploitation of the land has attracted much public and scientif... more Soil erosion resulting from human exploitation of the land has attracted much public and scientific interest. Being regarded mainly as a modern phenomenon, however, its prehistoric and historical extent remain largely unexplored. Here we summarize three regional studies ofHolocene erosion and alluviation in Greece, together with information derived from the literature, and conclude that most recorded Holocene soil erosion events are spatially and temporally related to human interference in the landscape. Wherever adequate evidence exists , a major phase of soil erosion appears to follow by 500-1000 years the introduction of farming in Greece, its age depending on when agriculture was introduced and ranging from the later Neolithic to the late Early Bronze Age. Later Bronze Age and historical soil erosion events are more scattered in time and space, but especially the thousand years after the middle of the 1st millennium B.C. saw serious, intermittent soil erosion in many places. With the exception of the earliest Holocene erosion phase, the evidence is compatible with a model of control of the timing and intensity of landscape destabilization by local economic and political conditions. On the whole, however, periods oflandscape stability have lasted much longer than the mostly brief episodes of soil erosion and stream aggradation.

Man's Role in the Shaping of the Eastern Mediterranean Landscape, 1990

Vita-Finzi’s model for the late Quaternary history of stream erosion and alluviation in the Medit... more Vita-Finzi’s model for the late Quaternary history of stream erosion and alluviation in the Mediterranean presented in 1969 has greatly influenced views on prehistoric human land use in Greece. Here we summarize the results of three major regional studies (southern Argolid, Thessaly, Plain of Argos) of this subject in selected areas of Greece. Comparison of the three data sets and the literature indicates a single, early ubiquitous event, followed by marked regional differences, but leaves little doubt that the cause of soil erosion since the middle Holocene has been human activity. In three regions, major erosion and valley alluviation occurred about 1000 years after the onset of widespread Neolithic land use; the date depends on the time large scale Neolithic land clearing began. From about the 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD, soil erosion is evident in the southern Argolid and probably the Thessalian plain and is indicated in the literature elsewhere in Greece, such as Elis, Euboea and the area of Olympia. In other areas, isolated erosion phases occurred during the lst millennium BC. Medieval erosion and alluviation affected all regions, but apparently at somewhat different times depending on local conditions. Except for the Neolithic phase, local conditions appear to have been dominant in the stabilization and destabilization of the landscape, and a simple universal stratigraphy is impossible to construct.

Archaeoseismology, 1996

Examination of Holocene deposits in auger cores and construction trenches provides clues for tect... more Examination of Holocene deposits in auger cores and construction trenches provides clues for tectonic movements in prehistory. One auger core traverse between Neolithic Dimini and the present coast of Volos in Central Greece revealed, firstly, that the sea used to extend c. 2.5 km farther inland extending almost to the site of ancient Dimini. Secondly, the Holocene stratigraphy indicated a subsidence of the central plain of 3.1 m due to block tectonic movements. The Gulf of Volos has been notorious for earthquakes at least during the last few centuries. Most of these are attributable to offsets along a major E-W striking normal fault stretching from Volos to Velestinon. Another normal fault, however, runs parallel to the first one on the southern side of the Gulf of Volos from Pevkakia-Magoula to Paliour. The displacement of Holocene deposits occurred in two steps: the first one resulted in 1.7 m subsidence before 3000 BP; the second movement of 1.4 m must have occurred c. 1000 years ago. Since Volos constitutes one of the most earthquake-prone regions in Europe, these offsets as recorded in the Holocene sediments were most likely accompanied by strong earthquakes in prehistoric and historic times.

American Journal of Archaeology, 1994

Excavations and auger cores have revealed the Holocene stratigraphy in the vicinity of the Late B... more Excavations and auger cores have revealed the Holocene stratigraphy in the vicinity of the Late Bronze Age citadel of Tiryns. During the Early Bronze Age, when the shoreline was only 300 m from the limestone hillock on which Tiryns rests, an expansive settlement covered the southern district of the lower town. Its remains are today buried by up to 6 m of sediment. Late in Early Helladic II, a stream south of Tiryns accumulated several meters of gravel and floodplain deposits. In LH IIIB/C this stream abandoned its bed and shifted to the north of the Tiryns knoll. At the same time, it deposited up to 4 m of coarse alluvium in the eastern parts of the palatial lower town. This depositional event may have coincided with a destruction phase in the archaeological record of Tiryns. To protect the lower town from future floods the inhabitants of Tiryns installed an artificial river diversion consisting of a l0-m-high dam and a 1.5-km-long canal.

Archaeometry '90, 1991

Analysis of the Holocene stratification around the Mycenaean citadel at Tiryns show how the settl... more Analysis of the Holocene stratification around the Mycenaean citadel at Tiryns show how the settlement’s fate has been closely linked to a stream which had its original course south of the citadel. During the second half of the Late Helladic III-B period the stream shifted north of the citadel and buried large parts of the lower town under 3-5 m of mud and gravel. To prevent further destruction, the people of Tiryns constructed a dam to redirect the stream 1 km south of the citadel. All further sedimentation at Tiryns was thus cut off so that LH III-C ruins are still near the present surface.

Opuscula Atheniensia, 1994

Ancient Asine consists of Early Helladic to Roman building remains set on a precipitous limestone... more Ancient Asine consists of Early Helladic to Roman building remains set on a precipitous limestone hillock, 350 m by 140 m in size, in the southeast comer of the Argive Plain (Peloponnese, Greece). Many Mycenaean chamber tombs and largely preserved Hellenistic fortification walls may indicate a naval installation of regional importance during the Late Bronze Age and Hellenistic. The geoarchaeological coring campaign discussed here aimed at reconstructing past environmental changes at Asine and at determining interrelations between the evolution of the landscape and human land use. Fifteen auger cores to a maximum depth of 9.5 m were taken from Holocene deposits around Asine and three power holes were drilled to a maximum depth of 21 m. These cores yielded up to 6 m thick subaqueous deposits which are buried under Early Bronze Age and post-Hellenistic alluvium. Hence, the hillock of Asine used to be an island during the Neolithic, i.e. before the deposition of the alluvia. In the Early Bronze Age, extensive soil erosion on the surrounding hills provided the sediment, which eventually turned the marine inlet into a lagoon. This lagoon was later filled in completely thereby providing the arable land, which constitutes today’s coastal plain. A further depositional phase occurred after the Hellenistic. If there were any prehistoric sites in the plain, they would now be buried by up to 3 m of silt.

Opuscula Atheniensia, 1990

The 1988 field season demonstrated that site location, preservation of monuments and artifacts as... more The 1988 field season demonstrated that site location, preservation of monuments and artifacts as well as land use are dependent upon the geological setting. Thus architectural remains such as the Mycenaean road are only preserved on the hard limestone, whereas the softer rocks such as marl and flysch, once stripped of their soil cover, have lost their archaeological record. Within the geological framework economic and political factors governed the settlement pattern. Trade and pastoralism attracted people to the Miyio valley northeast of Limnes in Final Neolithic/Early Helladic and Mycenaean times, while in Middle Helladic, Late Geometric and Classical to Roman times, arable soils in the lower Berbati valley were preferred. It is suggested that the discontinuous and highly variable low-density distribution of artifacts in our area results from past human activity such as land clearance and agriculture, pastoralism, dumping, manuring and artifact loss rather than from geomorphological processes.

Archaeology, 1993

Scouting the Argive plain, scholars seek evidence for the rise and fall of a once-mighty civiliza... more Scouting the Argive plain, scholars seek evidence for the rise and fall of a once-mighty civilization. Visitors to Mycenae wonder at the rum of the great citadel whose rulers dominated a large part of the Greek Peloponnese from 1500 to 1100 BCE and were preeminent in the Aegean world. But what was the source of Mycenae's power and wealth? And what brought this flourishing civilization to ruin?

Archaeology of Coastal Changes, 1988

Landsat coverage of the Argive plain, Greece, is examined to address whether units observed on th... more Landsat coverage of the Argive plain, Greece, is examined to address whether units observed on the satellite image can provide specific information about the paleogeography of the coastal area. Boundaries identified on the Landsat image and the computer-generated land cover map were compared to the Holocene stratigraphy known from subsurface investigations. From analysis of the Landsat-1 spectral data and generation of a computer-classified land cover map, areas with similar spectral reflectance properties were identified and mapped. There is a sharp boundary between the agricultural-rich alluvial valley and the coastal plain. A change in vegetation across this boundary enables us to detect it on the satellite image. The Holocene stratigraphy is characterized by a lower late Pleistocene-early Holocene sequence of soils overlain by marine to lagoonal silts and clays and Neolithic to recent alluvium and soils. The inland limit of the marine to lagoonal muds marks the maximum paleoshoreline of a transgression. Landward of a beaeh barrier which developed during the transgression, peat dating to the mid-Holocene was deposited in a lagoon. The shoreline has subsequently prograded seaward by the infilling of the lagoon and deposition of alluvial sediments. The floodplain/coastal plain boundary seen on the satellite image correlates to the inland limit of the subsurface subaqueous mud unit, marking the maximum early to middle Holocene transgressive shoreline.

Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Berlin, 1993

The Argive Plain Project was designed to determine the late Quaternary environmental history of t... more The Argive Plain Project was designed to determine the late Quaternary environmental history of the Argive Plain, a coastal plan of 243km2 in the Peloponnese (Greece), and to relate its historic landscape changes to human impact, climatic and tectonic processes, or sea level fluctuations. These objectives were accomplished by a detailed analysis of the late Pleistocene and Holocene stratigraphy. The Argive Plain was chosen as the subject for this study because of its archaeological significance and long, well-documented cultural history. Both factors probably relate to the geographic position of the plain, which at present encloses a large area of fertile soils and coastlines with some natural harbors.

Journal of Field Archaeology, 1991

Two completely vanished environments in Greece, a shallow coastal bay at Dimini near Volos and a ... more Two completely vanished environments in Greece, a shallow coastal bay at Dimini near Volos and a large freshwater lake near Lerna south of Argos, were found and reconstructed with over 200 auger and drill cores. Similarities between the coastal landscapes of modern Volos and Argos with respect to topography and settlement history are attributable to comparable geological settings and Holocene environmental histories; for example, at both places, active faulting has played a significant role and shoreline shifts have determined site location. Near Volos, the sea extended 3 km farther inland during the middle Holocene, reaching the base of Dimini Magoula (tell). After the Neolithic, the shore gradually receded, resulting in a seaward shift of settlements, thus explaining the presence of several single component sites in the area. Near Argos, the former presence of a large freshwater lagoon, named Lake Lerna, has been deduced from subsurface deposits. The lake was separated from the open sea by a beach barrier. It originated when the postglacial sea level rise reached its culmination point and extended over a diameter of 4.7 km in the Early Bronze Age. Increased soil erosion then caused a rapid silting, but remnants of Lake Lerna persisted until the 19th century. Anthropological studies have shown how the inhabitants of this coastal marsh have suffered from malaria in the past. It may be that the story of the legendary fight between Herakles and the Lernaean Hydra reflects the struggle of the Lernaean people as they tried to change the inhospitable environment by draining the lake.

Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, 1989

The objective of this study is to outline the Late Quaternary history of a submarine depositional... more The objective of this study is to outline the Late Quaternary history of a submarine depositional environment and the evolution of its ostracod fauna. Samples from the beach and the bottom of the Gulf of Argos provided recent ostracod populations, which are used here as ecological indicators and compared with fossil assemblages taken from core samples of buried marine Holocene and Pleistocene deposits. The Late Quaternary depositional environment of the Gulf of Argos is characterized by sediment accumulation and eustatic sea-level changes which have produced a succession of transgressive and regressive sequences. Each transgressive sequence begins with an assemblage of those organisms which first populated the newly formed euryhaline environment, in which the near-shore fauna as a whole can be characterized as a little diversified Xestoleberis/Loxoconcha assemblage.

Quaternary Research, 1990

Borings in the Argive Plain reveal cycles of marine incursions, each ending with a Mediterranean ... more Borings in the Argive Plain reveal cycles of marine incursions, each ending with a Mediterranean soil profile and followed by a prograded fluvial and coastal wedge. The sediment prism of the Gulf of Argos shelf, visible in high-resolution seismic reflection profiles also consists of transgressive and regressive depositional sequences identified by onlap, downlap, and truncation of deposits. At least four major reflectors, recognizable by their high acoustic impedance and erosional features, can be correlated across the shelf. The sediments between each pair of reflectors represent the seaward part of a set of transgressive and regressive marine deposits. They can be matched to the stratigraphic sequence on land where each marine unit is topped by a soil. Corrected for subsidence, the terminations of the onlapping and downlapping units define a local sea-level history: its time scale can be derived from a comparison with the eustatic sea-level history deduced from ocean cores. Thus, marine seismic reflection data can be used for the correlation of Quaternary oceanic and terrestrial chronologies.

American Journal of Archaeology, 1991

Four seasons of archaeological survey in the Skourta plain have yielded a coherent picture of set... more Four seasons of archaeological survey in the Skourta plain have yielded a coherent picture of settlement history, from Early Neolithic through Early Modern, of this basin in the Parnes-Kithairon mountain massif. Aspects of the environmental setting have been established through study of the Late Quaternary deposits and soils of the area.

Πεπραγμενα H. διεθνους Κρητολογικου Συνεδριου : Ηρακλειο, 9-14 Σεπτεμβριου 1996, 2000

The Goumia Project carried out three consecutive field seasons during 1992 through 1994 under the... more The Goumia Project carried out three consecutive field seasons during 1992 through 1994 under the direction of Costis Davaras, the Ephor of East Crete, and Vance Watrous. Members of the field project also included Harriet Blitzer, our ethnographer, the geomorphologist Eberhard Zangger, the archaeologist Donald Haggis as well as numerous students from the University of Crete and from America. The Goumia Survey differed from other American field projects in that American students were required to learn modern Greek, and during the season we arranged seminars on historical and archaeological topics as well as travelling to archaeological sites, museums and churches. We did this because we think that a successful research project will necessarily involve an educational aspect to it. The best background to understanding the regional data we collect is an awareness of how traditional people live in our region. As archaeologists, the ultimate goal of our studies is to understand the ancient people and the systems - social, economic or political - whereby they lived. The artifacts are only means toward these goals; they are not ends in themselves.

An Archaeological Survey of the Gournia Landscape: A Regional History of the Mirabello Bay, Crete, in Antiquity, 2012

The Gournia survey area is located at the center of the Mirabello region in eastern Crete. At the... more The Gournia survey area is located at the center of the Mirabello region in eastern Crete. At the heart of this area is the semicircular Bay of Mirabello, 17 km wide east-west and 10 km north-south. Five rivers run down from the mountains and extend through river valleys to the coast, emptying into the Mirabello Bay-at Hagios Nikolaos, Ammoudara, Istron, Pacheia Ammos, and Tholos (Kavousi). Each of these valleys has had a major settlement, either inland (as Neapolis, Kritsa, Kalo Chorio, Episkopi, and Kavousi) or coastal (as Mochlos), although tourism has swollen the coastal settlements at Hagios Nikolaos, Istron, and Pacheia Ammos. Finally, at the eastern edge of Mirabello Bay are located the island of Pseira as well as the village of Mochlos, which is based at the head of its own narrow coastal valley.

Hesperia, 1997

Human habitation patterns are constrained by natural resources and processes. Any regional archae... more Human habitation patterns are constrained by natural resources and processes. Any regional archaeological project must therefore first determine the primary resources provided by the natural setting, including the availability of fresh water, arable land, mineral deposits, building stones, and natural harbors, and, second, investigate the geological processes that may have distorted the original archaeological record, including erosion, deposition, tectonic movement, and coastal progradation and regression. Only when the quality and quantity of these factors are known will archaeological field projects be able to establish site size, function, and duration and reconstruct and interpret the historic interrelation between human habitation and landscape evolution.

American Journal of Archaeology, 1997

Near the Palace of Nestor in western Messenia, the earliest known artificial port in continental ... more Near the Palace of Nestor in western Messenia, the earliest known artificial port in continental Europe was discovered and investigated in the framework of the Pylos Regional Archaeological Project (PRAP). In 1992 a rectangular alluvial plain, 330 m x 230 m wide, was noticed in a fossil dune environment about 500 m inland of the Ionian coast. Since this plain appeared to represent a silted up basin, a number of hand and power drill holes were sunk in 1993 and 1994 to determine the subsurface stratigraphy.

Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 1993

Parts of the lower town of Mycenaean Tiryns, Greece, became devastated and buried 3-5 meters deep... more Parts of the lower town of Mycenaean Tiryns, Greece, became devastated and buried 3-5 meters deep during a torrential flood which coincided with a major earthquake at the transition from Late Helladic IIIB2 to Late Helladic IIIC1 (c. 1200 BC). These catastrophes contributed locally to the rapid demise of the Mycenaean civilization which commenced at this chronogical boundary. Such a collapse of an early Greek civilization accompanied by a simultaneous earthquake and flood is described by Plato (Timacus 25D) in the legendary Atlantis account. Plato's report revolves around a war between an ancient Greek civilization and a mighty force abroad, called Atlantis. If the former coincides with Mycenaean Greece, the most obvious candidate for the latter must be Troy. Hence, the thus far inexplicable story of Atlantis might well represent an Egyptian recollection of Troy and the Trojan War, distorted by transmission and translation.

Olba, 2015

Discoveries of hydraulic installations in Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Greece and Hit-tite Asia Minor... more Discoveries of hydraulic installations in Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Greece and Hit-tite Asia Minor and have shown that already during the Late Bronze Age a great deal of knowledge existed with respect to optimizing hydrological environments. During the 2nd millennium BC, engineers devised systems to drain lakes and wetlands, channelize and divert streams, build reservoirs, and dig artificial port basins on a massive scale. They also invented systems to keep basins sediment-free by flushing them with fresh water. In this paper the authors look at the example of the Port of Nestor at Pylos to propose a generic hydraulic system for an artificial seaport with clean-water flushing. This approach is then applied to the remains of artificial interferences with the landscape still visible in the floodplain below Troy. In this way, we develop a working hypothesis as to how a human-made hydraulic system at Troy could have functioned. We argue that Troy may well have possessed an artificial fresh-water-filled port basin that was connected to the Aegean Sea via a dry slipway. By being pulled over 150 meters of land and the sliding down another 300 meters, eastbound vessels would have avoided a 50 kilometer-long detour all the way around the island of Gökçeada and thus eased the hazardous entry into the Dardanelles. From this artificial Port of Troy basin, ships could slip directly into a counter-current running along the south coast of the Dardanelles, significantly mending their journeys towards the Black Sea.

Environmental Reconstruction in Mediterranean Landscape Archaeology, 1998

The paleotopography of the alluvial floodplain below the citadel of Troy (Hisarlik) is still disp... more The paleotopography of the alluvial floodplain below the citadel of Troy (Hisarlik) is still disputed. Recently, it was suggested that one or several of the marshes and wetlands in the floodplain may represent silted-up basins which could have served as the long sought-after ports of Bronze Age Troy. To test this hypothesis and to generate the additional field data required to lead the discussion of the Trojan paleotopography towards a constructive solution, a short-duration, highly inter-disciplinary field study should be conducted. In this paper, the non-remote sensing, ground-based methods and components of such a project are discussed, including geomorphological mapping, systematic coring, micropaleontological analyses, identification of soils and their correlation through space and time, analysis of the paleoecology and paleoclimate, and technical reconstruction of the hydraulic system.

Troia and the Troas - Scientific Approaches, 2003

William Morrow and Company, Inc., New York, Apr 1992

“Zangger has brought to Bronze Age Aegean archaeology the natural science concept of unified fiel... more “Zangger has brought to Bronze Age Aegean archaeology the natural science concept of unified field theory whereby one explanation can be applied to the universe. How else to describe these two works which cover the Trojan War, Plato, Atlantis, the Phaistos Disk, the end of the Bronze Age in the East Mediterranean, the Sea Peoples, and the nature of archaeological research? Before one relegates these two books to the realm of “fantastic” or “marginal” archaeology, however, it should be made clear that Zangger does not present his ideas as “this is the (one) way it happened.” Rather, Zangger has attempted to apply the rigors of scientific methodology to explaining the end of the Bronze Age in the Eastern Mediterranean.” (Daniel Pullen)

Spirit of Enterprise: The 1996 Rolex Awards, 1996

This project sets out to prove that Troy extended over an area wider than previously thought and ... more This project sets out to prove that Troy extended over an area wider than previously thought and was linked to the sea by these canals. For this, Zangger wants to use the latest aerial sensing techniques rather than conventional excavation methods. Zangger will undertake an extensive survey of an area some seven by 12 kilometers of the Trojan plain, using ground penetrating radar and magnetometer devices. The geologist already has radar images of the region taken from the Space Shuttle, as well as 10 pictures taken from the ERS-1 satellite. For deeper ground inspection, he wants to use a German Aerospace Research Centre aircraft equipped with a synthetic aperture radar device and a helicopter from the Federal Institute of Geoscience Resources. Electromagnetomeffy, magnetometry and scintillometry instruments on board these two aircraft, which require flying at an altitude of less than 100 meters, will be used to analyze the ground to a depth of several meters.

Spirit of Enterprise - The 1993 Rolex Awards, 1993

This project consists of three parts. Firstly, demonstrating that Plato’s Atlantis account repres... more This project consists of three parts. Firstly, demonstrating that Plato’s Atlantis account represents a distorted recollection of the Trojan War. Secondly, finding more ancient texts which describe Troy and the Trojan War. Thirdly, excavating at thus far neglected places in the Trojan Plain for port basins, ships, bodies, etc.

Vierteljahresschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich, 1998

Plato’s Atlantis account represents an Egyptian recollection of the Trojan War. Atlantis is equiv... more Plato’s Atlantis account represents an Egyptian recollection of the Trojan War. Atlantis is equivalent with Late Bronze Age Troy. The twenty page-long report describes the Mycenaean civilization in Greece including its stratified society, knowledge of writing, readiness for military strife and possession of chariots and bronze weapons. The most remarkable deed of this prehistoric Greek culture was its victory over Troy. When the account was translated from Egyptian into Greek, original place names were replaced with Greek names. In this way, the opponent of the Mycenaeans came to be known as “Atlantis”. Plato’s description of Atlantis coincides with Medieval descriptions of Troy. Until the 19th cent. AD, English historians commonly referred to the people of Troy as “Atlantians”. The few distortions in the account are characteristic of errors which occur in translating Egyptian hieroglyphic texts into ancient Greek.

Droemer Verlag, München, 1992

"Zanggers Wegweiser nach Atlantis löst das Geheimnis gleichsam in Luft auf. Seiner Meinung nach i... more "Zanggers Wegweiser nach Atlantis löst das Geheimnis gleichsam in Luft auf. Seiner Meinung nach ist die Platon-Erzählung nichts anderes als eine 'verzerrte Erinnerung' an das große Troja, jene antike Metropole am Hellespont (Dardanellen), die wahrscheinlich im 13. Jahrhundert vor Christus der List des Odysseus und der Schlagkraft von 100 000 griechischen Soldaten erlag, wie der Dichter Homer berichtet." (DER SPIEGEL)

Pan Yayıncılık, Istanbul, 1999

Jeoarkeolog Dr. Eberhard Zangger, efsanevi kayıp kıta Atlantis'in Troya olduğu öne sürdüğü kitabı... more Jeoarkeolog Dr. Eberhard Zangger, efsanevi kayıp kıta Atlantis'in Troya olduğu öne sürdüğü kitabıyla 1992 yılından bu yana bilim çevrelerinin dikkatini çekiyor. Atlantis'in yeri hakkında bugüne kadar pek çok iddia ortaya atıldı. Ancak bunları hiçbiri bugüne kadar kesin olarak kanıtlanamadı. Eski uygarlıkların, yüksek mühendislik bilgileri ile su bentleri, yapay limanlar gibi su tekniğine bağlı büyük projeleri gerçekleştirebildikleri son yıllardaki arkeolojik çalışmalar sonucu kesinleşmiş durumda. Zangger bu yeni bulgularla Platon'un Atlantis'ini farklı yorumluyor. Artık Platon'un liman tasvirleri hayal ürünü sayılmıyor. Zangger, geçmişe ilişkin bilgilerimizin doğa bilimlerinde ortaya çıkan çağdaş gelişmelerin ışığı altında nitelik değiştirdiğini belirtiyor. Buna karşılık, arkeologların çağdaş araştırma ve tekniklerinden yeterince yararlanamadığını, geleneksel eğitim almış arkeologların geçmişe ilişkin katkılarının azalmaya başladığını öne sürüyor. (Arka Kapak)

Olba, 2015

Mısır, Suriye, Filistin, Yunanistan ve Hitit dönemindeki Ön Asya’da hidrolik sistemlerin keşfi, G... more Mısır, Suriye, Filistin, Yunanistan ve Hitit dönemindeki Ön Asya’da hidrolik sistemlerin keşfi, Geç Bronz Çağı’nda bile insanların hidrolojik çevrenin iyileştirilmesi konusunda pek çok bilgi sahibi olduğunu göstermiştir. M.Ö. 2. binyılda mühendisler gölleri ve bataklıkları kurutmak, nehirleri kanallara yönlendirmek veya yönünü değiştirmek, su rezervuarları inşa etmek ve devasa ölçekte liman havuzları kazmak için yöntemler geliştirmişlerdir. Aynı zamanda bu havuzlara tatlı su basarak çökeltinin birikmesini engellemek için de yollar icat etmişlerdir. Bu makalenin yazarları, Pilos’taki Nestor Limanı örneği temelinde tatlı suyla dolan yapay bir liman için genel bir hidrolik sistem önerip, bu yaklaşımı Troia’nın aşağısındaki taşkın havzasında kalıntıları günümüzde de görünen, doğal çevreye yapılmış suni müdahalelere uygulamaktadırlar. Troia’da insan yapımı hidrolik bir sistemin nasıl işlemiş olabileceği konusunda bir hipotez geliştirip, Troia’da kuru kızak yoluyla Ege Denizi’yle bağlantılı olan, tatlı suyla dolu yapay bir liman havzası olmuş olabileceğini öne sürmektedirler. Karadeniz’e giden gemiler kara üzerinde önce 150 metre boyunca Troia ovası içlerine doğru, sonra da 300 metre limana doğru çekilince Gökçeada’nın etrafından dolaşarak yolu 50 kilometre uzatmak zorunda kalmıyorlardı ve tehlikelerle dolu Çanakkale Boğazı’na giriş de kolaylaşmış oluyordu. Böylece gemiler Troia Limanı’nın bu yapay havuzundan doğrudan Çanakkale Boğazı’nın güney kıyısı boyunca akan ters akıntıya giriyor ve Karadeniz’e doğru yolculuklarında önemli bir avantaj elde etmiş oluyorlardı.

УИ "Св. Климент Охридски", 1994

Shinchosa, Tokyo, 1997

［要旨］それはトロイだった！一夜にして海底に沈んだ、謎の大陸アトランティス。哲人プラトンが書き残し、人類を呪縛し続けた「伝説」を解体し、真の地中海史を再生する知的冒険への誘い。現代地理考古学... more ［要旨］

それはトロイだった！一夜にして海底に沈んだ、謎の大陸アトランティス。哲人プラトンが書き残し、人類を呪縛し続けた「伝説」を解体し、真の地中海史を再生する知的冒険への誘い。現代地理考古学が伝説に終止符を打つ。

［目次］

第１章掘り出しもの探しの名人
第２章プラトンによるアトランティスの記事
第３章アトランティスの記事の解剖
第４章古代のエーゲ海
第５章伝説の解読
第６章『オデュッセイア』が意味を現わし始める
第７章トロイの復元
第８章結論

Haber Sol online, 2022

At the beginning of last September (September 2-3, 2022), a symposium was held quietly in Muğla-M... more At the beginning of last September (September 2-3, 2022), a symposium was held quietly in Muğla-Milas: the 13th Symposium on Caria, Carians and Mylasa. In fact, as the name suggests, this was the thirteenth in what has become an annual series of meetings on the subject, a kind of study series that gathers every year in Milas. The meeting in 2022 was attended and presented papers by more than 40 scientists from 14 countries, mainly from Turkey. One of the scientists giving a lecture at the symposium was Dr. Eberhard Zangger, a geoarchaeologist who is also the head of the Foundation for Luwian Studies, which he established in 2014. We have been following him for a long time and conducted a three-hour conversation with him.

Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 2001

More and more, highly specialized scientists are taking over the investigation of the past. Using... more More and more, highly specialized scientists are taking over the investigation of the past. Using satellites and aircraft, they are screening entire regions throughout the world in an attempt to find hidden traces of early societies. What’s more, their discoveries—often in complete contrast to archaeology’s established schools of thought—are changing our view of prehistoric civilizations. Here, the author takes the reader into the field to look at excavations around the world, explaining current thinking in archaeological research and exploring the sophisticated techniques that have only recently become available. The result is a refreshingly novel view of the past and a fascinating glimpse of the future of archeological science.

The Greatest Inventions of the Past 2000 Years - Today's Leading Thinkers Choose the Creations that Shaped Our World, 2000

Shortly before the turn of the century, the literary agent John Brockman asked some of his client... more Shortly before the turn of the century, the literary agent John Brockman asked some of his clients to discuss what they think was the greatest invention of the past 2000 years. The author suggested "Jesus Christ", since in his opinion Christianity was indeed the most momentous invention in that timespan (besides electricity). However, the text had to be softened and was eventually published in the form provided here.

Popular Archaeology, 2019

One of the greatest scholars of Anatolian archaeology also had a problem with the truth.

Talanta – Proceedings of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society, 2018

A scrutiny of the British prehistorian James Mellaart’s (1925-2012) estate in his former study in... more A scrutiny of the British prehistorian James Mellaart’s (1925-2012) estate in his former study in northern London, conducted on 24-27 February 2018, revealed evidence that the famous pioneer of Anatolian archaeology had fabricated translations of alleged Late Bronze Age documents from western Asia Minor over a period of many years. Scholarly disputes in which the authenticity of the material presented by James Mellaart was questioned had arisen before, above all after the publication of the Dorak Treasure in 1959 and of alleged reconstructions of wall paintings from Çatalhöyük during the years 1984 until 1999. In 1992/93, Mellaart also briefly mentioned in publications his possession of an extensive Arzawan royal annal, the so-called Beyköy Text, written in cuneiform Hittite and said to be composed around 1170 BC for the great king of Mira, Kupantakuruntas. An examination of his study produced over a thousand pages on this subject, but no material from an external source: no translations written by someone other than Mellaart, and no correspondence regarding any envisaged publication of this Beyköy Text. On the contrary, Mellaart related the research history and details of the Beyköy Text in so many different versions in his unpublished manuscripts and notes that it was obvious that he had composed these documents himself. His study even contained the tool kit for the production of the Beyköy Text, including many notes on small pieces of cardboard and rough first drafts in handwriting. In 1989, Mellaart also came forward with a number of drawings said to reflect Luwian hieroglyphic inscriptions found between 1854 and 1878 in western Asia Minor. The most prominent of these would have been about 29 metres long, allegedly dated to ca. 1180 BC and also accredited to Kupantakuruntas. Mellaart’s former study did not contain earlier drafts of this drawing that would have pointed to forgery. However, a manuscript typewritten by Mellaart but accredited to the deceased Turkish archaeologist Uluğ Bahadır Alkım indicates that the British prehistorian handled this subject untruthfully as well.

Orell Füssli Verlag, Zürich, 2017

The book covers two centuries of research on Anatolian civilisations, told as a biographical anth... more The book covers two centuries of research on Anatolian civilisations, told as a biographical anthology of pioneers in the field. Each of these great explorers followed their own path, but all suffered a similar fate: ostracism, exclusion from the academic community, and ultimately obscurity. And while each was to experience their own particular failure, together they were able to gradually accumulate a wealth of information about the Luwian civilisation. The volume of data available eventually reached critical mass, and the Luwians – a people archaeology had previously overlooked – emerged from the shadows of time.

Schneekluth, München, 1998

Seit Heinrich Schliemann 1871 die Reste des antiken Troja entdeckte, hat die Erforschung der Ägäi... more Seit Heinrich Schliemann 1871 die Reste des antiken Troja entdeckte, hat die Erforschung der Ägäischen Frühgeschichte keine einschneidenden Umwälzungen mehr erlebt. Während auf den Gebieten der Biologie, Physik und Geologie das Wissen durch überraschende Erkenntnisse immer wieder umfassend reformiert wurde, konnte die Altertumskunde über hundert Jahre lang auf ihren Lehrmeinungen beharren. Jetzt wird ihr Gedankengebäude hinterfragt. Hochspezialisierte Naturwissenschaftler untersuchen heute mit modernsten Techniken die Überreste aus der Vergangenheit und stellen dabei fest, dass vieles ganz ander war, als bisher vermutet...

Der Themenpark der Expo 2000, 2000

Die Ausstellung „Das 21. Jahrhundert“ bei der Expo2000 bedient sich eines bemerkenswerten Kunstgr... more Die Ausstellung „Das 21. Jahrhundert“ bei der Expo2000 bedient sich eines bemerkenswerten Kunstgriffs, um der Zukunft das Unergründliche und Bedrohliche zu nehmen und um zu zeigen, daß diese schon bald Gegenwart und dann Vergangenheit sein wird: Sie präsentiert die Zukunft als bereits gelebte Vergangenheit. Das Publikum erlebt eine Zeitreise rückwärts.

Visionen 2000: Einhundert persönliche Zukunftsentwürfe - ausgewählt von der Brockhaus Redaktion, 1999

In Zukunft werden die traditionellen Gebiete der Archäologie durch bisher wenig berücksichtigte e... more In Zukunft werden die traditionellen Gebiete der Archäologie durch bisher wenig berücksichtigte ergänzt. Der Anteil der Geisteswissenschaftler bei archäologischen Untersuchungen sinkt, statt dessen beteiligen sich vermehrt Experten der Mathematik, Systemanalyse, Fernerkundung, Geographie, Geophysik, Ökologie, Biologie, Anthropologie und des Städtebaus. Fachhochschulen bieten Archäologie als Aufbaustudium an, um den Sachverstand möglichst großer Gruppen für die Erforschung der Vergangenheit zu nutzen. Auch die Methoden wandeln sich dramatisch. Geographische Informationssysteme ersetzen Gipsabgüsse und Marmorskulpturen
in Kolonnaden. Statt wie bisher in der Hoffnung auf spektakuläre Funde möglichst große Löcher in den Boden zu graben, durchleuchten die in der Archäologie tätigen Experten ganze Landschaften flächendeckend mit Fernerkundungsverfahren von Satelliten, Flugzeugen und Hubschraubern aus. Kommt es zu Ausgrabungen, ist noch vor
dem ersten Spatenstich vorhersehbar, welche Funde zu erwarten sind.

Archäologie Online, 2019

Der britische Prähistoriker James Mellaart (1925–2012) hatte vor seinem Tod einige unveröffentlic... more Der britische Prähistoriker James Mellaart (1925–2012) hatte vor seinem Tod einige unveröffentlichte Manuskripte als besonders wichtig markiert und zur sofortigen Publikation bestimmt. Bei einer mehrtägigen Durchsicht anderer Teile des Nachlasses im Februar 2018 stießen Mellaarts Sohn und Erbe Alan und der Schweizer Geoarchäologe Eberhard Zangger jedoch auf Hinweise, aus denen unzweifelhaft hervorgeht, dass James Mellaart diese Texte in Wirklichkeit erfunden hatte. Nun ist eine umfassende wissenschaftliche Auswertung dieser Dokumente in Talanta – Proceedings of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society erschienen.

Sonntagszeitung, Nov 14, 2010

Ein neues Buch des Althistorikers Frank Kolb rollt den denkwürdigen Gelehrtenstreit um die Stadt ... more Ein neues Buch des Althistorikers Frank Kolb rollt den denkwürdigen Gelehrtenstreit um die Stadt an den Dardanellen auf. - Besprechung von Frank Kolb, «Tatort ‹Troia›», Verlag F. Schoeningh.

Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Aug 13, 2005

arkeolojikhaber.com, 2019

Bay James Mellaart (1925 – 2012) Anadolu arkeolojisinin en parlak araştırmacılarından biriydi. Ne... more Bay James Mellaart (1925 – 2012) Anadolu arkeolojisinin en parlak araştırmacılarından biriydi. Neredeyse tek başına Küçük Asya’daki Neolitiği keşfetti. Beycesultan, Hacılar ve Çatalhöyük’teki kazıları başlattı ve yürüttü. 1950’li ve 1960’lı yıllarda Mellaart dünyadaki en şöhretli prehistoryendi. Tüm dünyada arkeoloji ile ilgilenenler onun başarılarını takip ediyordu. Mellaart’ın her bulgusu önemli sayılıyordu. Hem araştırmacılar, hem de meslekten olmayan meraklılar Mellaart’ın öncü çalışmalarına, kapsamlı sonuçlara varan cesaretine, büyüleyici derslerine ve derin bilgisini ortaya koyduğu sürükleyici kitaplarına hayrandılar.

James Mellaart'ın Geç Tunç Çağı'na ait olduğunu iddia ettiği pek çok belgenin sahte olduğu göz ön... more James Mellaart'ın Geç Tunç Çağı'na ait olduğunu iddia ettiği pek çok belgenin sahte olduğu göz önüne alındığında, Mellaart'ın evinde bulunmuş olan Luvi hiyeroglif metinlerinin gerçekliği kaçınılmaz olarak yeniden gözden geçirilmelidir. Öte yandan, Mellaart'ın çalışma evinde yapılan inceleme, başta Beyköy 2 olmak üzere, Mellaart'ın Luvi hiyeroglif metinlerini kurguladığına dair bir kanıt sunmamıştır. Metindeki gramerin karmaşıklığı, Mellaart'ın metne dair önemli ve kendine özgü yanlış yorumlamaları, metnin sahte olma olasılığını dışlamaktadır. Metnin görünümü Mellaart'ın sahipliği döneminde değişmemiştir. Mellaart, Alkım'a atfettiği çeviri denemesinin tek harfine bile dokunmamıştır. Diğer taraftan, metnin yazıldığı blokların doğru dizilebilmesi için dört farklı düzenleme yapılması gerekmiştir. Eğer belgenin sahte olduğunu varsayarsak; sahtecinin metinde çok sayıda özgünlük ve tekillik yarattığından ötürü bir budala, gramere hakimiyetinden ötürü ise, aynı zamanda çok iyi bir dilbilimci olduğunu kabul etmek durumunda kalırız. Dahası, Beyköy 2 metni sunulduğu 1989 yılında, uzmanlarca henüz bilinmeyen ifadeleri içermektedir. Sözgelimi, "büyük prens" unvanı çok daha sonra Latmos'daki kaya kabartmalarında keşfedildi. Beyköy 2'nin Mellaart tarafından yaratılan sahte bir belge olmadığının en önemli göstergelerinden biri, Mellaart'ın metnin içeriğine dair yaptığı yorumlardaki açık hatalardır. Mellaart'ın metni yorumlamak için yeterli donanımı yoktu; bu yüzden pek çok ifadeyi yanlış çevirmiş, hatta metnin ana fikrini ıskalamıştı. Sonuç olarak, Mellaart'ın dosyalarındaki Luvi hiyeroglif metinlerinin ve özellikle Beyköy 2'nin, sahte belgeler değil, gerçek buluşlar olduğunu kabul etmek için yeterli neden bulunmaktadır.

Aramco World, May 1995

Around 1200 BCE, attackers known as the “Sea People” raided lands throughout the eastern Mediterr... more Around 1200 BCE, attackers known as the “Sea People” raided lands throughout the eastern Mediterranean. This article argues that the Sea People may have been a confederation, unacknowledged until now. – Through the epics of the Greek poet Homer, tales of an “age of heroes” have been passed down through millennia. In the Odyssey and the Iliad the poet told of an era dominated by aristocratic warlords who bore ornamented weapons and commanded well-organized, armored chariot troops. This “golden age” culminated in the legendary Trojan War, fought between Troy, located in what is now northwestern Turkey, and Mycenaean Greece.

amazon.de; Luwian Studies website, 2022

Review of Jörg Mull, 2022, Towards the Borders of the Bronze Age and Beyond: Mycenaean Long Dista... more Review of Jörg Mull, 2022, Towards the Borders of the Bronze Age and Beyond: Mycenaean Long Distance Travel and Its Reflection in Myth. Sidestone Press.

Jörg Mull had already published a comprehensive book in German in 2017 on the various explanatory models for the end of the Bronze Age ("Mythen und Metalle – Der Trojanische Krieg, die Seevölker und der Kulturbruch am Ende der Bronzezeit"), and now a new work by him has appeared in English. It is entitled "Towards the Borders of the Bronze Age and Beyond: Mycenaean Long Distance Travel and its Reflection in Myth" and is published by Sidestone Press in Leiden. The book deals with the question of how far the trade routes of Mycenaean seafarers extended and to what extent the impressions gained on their journeys have been preserved in ancient Greek myths.

Droemer Verlag, München, 1994

The Sea Peoples inscriptions in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III in Medinet Habu are by no mea... more The Sea Peoples inscriptions in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III in Medinet Habu are by no means the unique historical accounts for which they are often taken because of their superficial parallels with archaeological findings. A closer look reveals that these texts are a kind of potpourri of traditional topics, copies of earlier texts, tried and tested enemy lists, battles from before Ramesses III took office and descriptions of actual contemporary events. They primarily served sacred purposes to boot. What appears to be described as historic events merely reflects the interpretation that people in Egypt had when they saw what was happening – the events themselves are not handed down in the sense of historiography, but “only form the core and point of departure for the artistic literary work” (Hölbl 1983, 126). The writers were obviously not keen to provide an accurate chronology. For them the laws of symmetry, aesthetics, and religion took precedence over historical accuracy. Hence, the thus far most promising source of information about the crisis years (c. 1192-1182 BC) turns out to be mere propaganda. Of course, despite deliberate distortions and exaggerations, the inscriptions are not completely useless. Much like most ancient texts, they are half true and half false. The problem – and thus the real difficulty of interpreting early historical documents – is to distinguish reliable statements from less reliable ones. This is often impossible. As far as the Sea Peoples inscriptions are concerned, however, there is a historical core that can be summarized with the due caution as follows: Peoples in the north of Egypt, who have so far mainly appeared individually, had united, thereby bringing about a new political situation. These peoples broke away from their ancestral homeland and attacked other areas. Cyprus, Hattusa and other places in the eastern Mediterranean were raided. The attackers formed a camp in Syria. Ships from different nations were involved in naval battles. Subsequently to the fighting, migrations occurred, with some groups taking refuge on Egyptian territories.

Taishukan Publishing Co., Tokyo, 1997

［要旨］３２００年前にも“世界大戦”があった！ホメロスが『イーリアス』で描いたのは単なる作り話ではなくて、青銅器時代末期、地中海列強が生き残りを賭けた戦った壮絶な戦いだった…。［目次］ ... more ［要旨］

３２００年前にも“世界大戦”があった！ホメロスが『イーリアス』で描いたのは単なる作り話ではなくて、青銅器時代末期、地中海列強が生き残りを賭けた戦った壮絶な戦いだった…。

［目次］

プロローグ初期古代史概観―トロイア戦争時代の諸事件、その再構成の試み（危機の時代
史料ほか）
第１章新たな視点の台頭と旧学説の駆逐（最後の偉大なファラオと「海の民」の侵略
抜け目ない外交術―同時代の条約と公文書ほか）
第２章紀元前１３００年までの東地中海世界の諸文化（歪曲された歴史解釈―トロイア（１）
発掘の先駆者たち―トロイア（２）ほか）
第３章青銅器時代の終焉（終焉の歴史的背景（紀元前１３００‐１２８０年）
カデシュの戦い（紀元前１２８０‐１２６０年）ほか）
第４章トロイア戦争時代の再構成
エピローグ考古学の「危機の時代」

International Journal of Archaeology, 2022

BACKGROUND: Hominids used stone tools for hundreds of thousands of years without exhibiting signi... more BACKGROUND: Hominids used stone tools for hundreds of thousands of years without exhibiting significant technological progress. The latter first occurred after the end of the last ice age, above all with the introduction of agriculture. At that time, agrarian societies emerged with production techniques, including ceramic technology, basketry, weaving, and cordage, that individuals could master and for which the raw materials could be obtained through subsistence farming. The question arises as to the process by which early societies – in this case in China – were able to advance to a higher level of technology. The working hypothesis is that this was made possible by the hybridization of technologies in urban centers. The exchange among specialized artisans led to cross-fertilization, which facilitated the development of new techniques. OBJECTIVE: This study first discusses some prominent earlier models of thought on the development of urbanism. It then attempts to apply the concept of technology hybridization to the development of various technologies in ancient China. In particular, topics such as hydraulic engineering, bronze metallurgy, jade industry, and scribal art are discussed. METHOD: The approach of comparative archaeology allows an understanding of the dynamics of long-term social and technological change in early Chinese societies. A transdisciplinary and diachronic approach is used to reveal long-term social variability and cross-cultural connections. RESULTS: Urbanism is both an expression of technology and a catalyst of further technological progress. Technology hybridization, the convergence and cross-fertilization of technologies of different natures in urban centers, is ultimately an important driving force of cultural progress. CONCLUSION: Despite great differences in terms of geological substrate, topography, climate, and vegetation, early Chinese cultures shared several common characteristics. These included complex social organization, the existence of social classes, and an increasingly urban landscape with specialized workshops and sophisticated technologies such as copper and bronze metallurgy, jade carving, divination, and writing. This Chinese civilization did not simply emerge from the Central Plains and then absorb and assimilate the cultures of the surrounding regions. Rather, it is the result of a process in which various traditions, peoples, languages, and ethnicities were woven into a historically complex and multilayered fabric. Presumably, the early polities were independent cities or city-states that retained their political autonomy. Actual technical progress took place primarily where population density was high, i.e., in urban centers.

MS thesis. Harvard University, 2024

This master’s thesis aims to examine whether the complex nature of today’s internet-based communi... more This master’s thesis aims to examine whether the complex nature of today’s internet-based communication can be reconciled with twentieth century sociological systems theories, especially those of Niklas Luhmann. The question is whether the impact of social media tends to support or refute existing social theories. The digital age (from about 1980 onwards) has brought about new forms of communication that are strongly influenced by neoliberal economic policies and (from about 2005 onwards) increasingly by social media. Like analog mass media, the new media provide information and entertainment. Both forms of communication also have in common that they are financed by advertising. Unlike established media, however, the content in social media is created by users and is therefore free of charge for platform operators. Consequently, there is no quality control in the form of an editorial filter. The key to business success for platform operators is that users generate a stream of data about their behavior and preferences. Platform operators collect this user-specific data and distribute it commercially. The data allows advertisers to target their campaigns to specific populations. In addition, online-marketing specialists can measure the success of these campaigns with outstanding resolution. As a consequence, the budget available to campaign – together with the lead time – are decisive for success. This applies to sales promotion, but also to political campaigns, for example in the run-up to elections. Because of these targeted campaigns, the behavior of large sub-societies, as well as public opinion, are shaped – to an extent that has never been reached before – by the ruling class as only they have the budgets that are necessary for success. Multinational corporations, influential organizations, extraordinarily wealthy individuals, and autocratic leaders determine topics of conversation and public opinion.
Societal systems theories of the twentieth century are not transferable to the twenty-first century as communication does not follow natural laws. On the contrary, structures prevailing in nineteenth century capitalist economic systems, which Karl Marx in particular dealt with, have been resurrected in the present day. This was possible because the platform operators have succeeded in developing monopolies in their respective segments. Thus they are leveraging out the market that would be necessary for a capitalist economic system to function properly. Thanks to social media, the ruling class controls both the state and public opinion to a previously unimaginable degree. An age of digital feudalism has dawned.