Ine Jacobs | University of Oxford (original) (raw)

Projects by Ine Jacobs

The Manar al-Athar digital archive, based at the University of Oxford, provides high resolution, ... more The Manar al-Athar digital archive, based at the University of Oxford, provides high resolution, searchable images for teaching, research, and publication. These images of archaeological sites, buildings and art, cover the areas of the former Roman empire which later came under Islamic rule, such as Syro-Palestine/the Levant, Egypt and North Africa, as well as some bordering regions, such as Georgia and Armenia. The chronological range is from Alexander the Great (i.e., from about 300 BC) through the Islamic period. It is the first website of its kind providing such material labelled jointly in both Arabic and English.

The digital archive is in continuous development. Current strengths include Late Antiquity (250–750 AD), the period of transition from paganism to Christianity, and then to Islam, especially religious buildings (temples, churches, synagogues, mosques) and monumental art (including floor mosaics), early Islamic art (paintings, mosaics, relief sculpture), as well as Roman and early Islamic (Umayyad) architecture, and evidence of iconoclasm.

The digital archive aims to: provide freely-downloadable images at high resolution for research and publication, as well as at low resolution for powerpoint slides for teaching; make images freely available for publication simply by acknowledging the source; have simple and accurate labels easy to search and organize, with bilingual text in Arabic and English to facilitate the use of the images for both teaching and research in the Arab world, where many of the monuments are located.

Books by Ine Jacobs

Cyprus in the Long Late Antiquity. History and Archaeology Between the Sixth and Eighth Centuries, 2023

Cyprus was a thriving and densely populated late antique province. The Arab raids of the mid-seve... more Cyprus was a thriving and densely populated late antique province. The Arab raids of the mid-seventh century did not abruptly bring the island’s prosperity to an end. Recent research highlights long-lasting continuity in both urban and rural contexts. This volume brings together historians and archaeologists working on diverse aspects of Cyprus between the sixth and eighth centuries. They discuss topics as varied as rural prosperity, urban endurance, artisanal production, civic and private religion, and maritime connectivity. The role of the imperial administration and of the Church is touched upon in several contributions. Other articles place Cyprus back into its wider Mediterranean context. Together, they produce a comprehensive impression of the quality of life on the island in the Long Late Antiquity.

This volume brings together historians and archaeologists working on diverse aspects of Asia Mino... more This volume brings together historians and archaeologists working on diverse aspects of Asia Minor in the long sixth century. They discuss topics as varied as rural prosperity, urbanism in cities large and small, frontier management, and the imperial capital of Constantinople. Many of the papers focus on the fabric of cities during this period, showing that there was much greater vitality than has often been assumed. Together, they produce a comprehensive impression of the quality of life in both city and countryside in the period shortly before the transformation of Asia Minor in the face of the Arab attacks of the seventh century.

In the Roman period, construction and maintenance of civic monuments and infrastructure were rega... more In the Roman period, construction and maintenance of civic monuments and infrastructure were regarded as the normal duty of well-off citizens. For the subsequent centuries, encompassing the 4th to the 7th century AD, changing social and political conditions within the Roman Empire assumingly resulted in a severe reduction of expenditure and concurrent loss of sentimental and aesthetic attitudes towards public space. This book challenges this assumption. It reconstructs how cities of the Eastern Mediterranean in late antique and Early Byzantine times represented themselves towards outsiders by assessing the care given to urban fortifications, streets and squares, decorative and religious monuments and, finally, statuary. Thereafter, the architectural changes that distinguished these centuries from previous times are discussed. The book then evaluates the identity and motives of the diverse initiators of interventions, as well as the skills and work organisation of the actual constructors. Finally, the priorities of the users of public space, as well as their responses to it, are explored.

Despite the large increase in material evidence datable to the Theodosian period (379-455 C.E.), ... more Despite the large increase in material evidence datable to the Theodosian period (379-455 C.E.), textual sources still dominate our view of the period. This had led to a pretty bleak picture made up of foreign invasions, loss of territory, a weak ruler dynasty, a state-driven distribution system, and declining cities. And yet, many regions of the Roman Empire seem to have been doing quite well. For this reason, this volume aims at a re-evaluation of the prosperity of the Roman Empire under the Theodosii. Archaeological, historical, epigraphic and numismatic research are combined to investigate the vitality and socio-economic potential of distinct regions of the empire; to explore the relative importance of cities, villages, fortresses and estates in patterns of purchase and consumption; to gain insights into the mechanisms and forces underlying production, distribution and consumption of both staple goods and luxury products; and, eventually, to offer explanations for the general condition and functioning of the empire.

Journal articles by Ine Jacobs

American Journal of Archaeology, 2024

This paper presents evidence for late fifth-century CE wall mosaics from Aphrodisias, provincial ... more This paper presents evidence for late fifth-century CE wall mosaics from Aphrodisias, provincial capital of Caria, Western Asia Minor. The mosaics formed part of the decoration of an upper story gallery belonging to one or more luxurious private residences located alongside the Tetrapylon Street, the city’s main north-south avenue. They are therefore a rare example of late antique wall mosaics from a domestic context. We present the context in which the mosaic fragments were found, the motifs that can still be recognized, and some of the technical characteristics of these mosaics. Combined with the other elements of decoration found in association with the mosaic fragments, we offer a reconstruction of the decorative program of the gallery. We then broaden our view to trace wall mosaics elsewhere at Aphrodisias and discuss waste attesting to glass tessera production. We argue that an itinerant wall mosaic workshop or workshops was/were active at Aphrodisias in the late fifth and early sixth century, when the city’s monuments and residences were undergoing renovations in the wake of an earthquake. We examine the possibility of a wall mosaic habit which was much more widespread than previously thought, extending beyond the ecclesiastical contexts with which it is conventionally associated .

Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 2024

The city of Taucheira (modern Tocra) in Cyrenaica, Libya, has played a prominent role in establis... more The city of Taucheira (modern Tocra) in Cyrenaica, Libya, has played a prominent role in established narratives of the 7th-century Arab conquest of Byzantine North Africa ever since excavations by Richard Goodchild in the 1960s uncovered a substantial walled compound there. Goodchild interpreted the compound as a fortress — “the last monument of Byzantine rule in Cyrenaica” — built in haste in the face of the approaching Arabs inside a much larger set of walls traditionally ascribed to the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565). In the more than half a century since Goodchild’s publication of the walled compound, late antique and Byzantine studies have undergone radical transformations, but narratives around the walled compound at Taucheira, and about the city itself, have not been considered critically. This article presents a combined historical and archaeological reassessment of the city in light of contemporary developments in scholarship and argues that Taucheira was a vibrant urban centre throughout late antiquity, provided with walls at some point between the late 5th century and the Justinianic period. Detailed re-examination of the walled compound indicates it could not have served an effective defensive function and is better interpreted as an administrative area. Moreover, an Anastasian construction date is more probable than the conventionally accepted date in the 640s CE.

Aegyptiaca. Journal of the History of Reception of Ancient Egypt, 2022

Almost forty years ago, excavators at the ancient city of Aphrodisias in Asia Minor made an unexp... more Almost forty years ago, excavators at the ancient city of Aphrodisias in Asia Minor made an unexpected discovery. Amid the destruction collapse of a late antique house were two small artefacts of obviously Egyptian manufacture: a statuette of a seated female, probably the goddess Isis or Ma’at in green diorite, and a faïence shabti. Neither piece is complete. The shabti is broken at the knees and the statuette is missing its head. The damage is likely to have been the result of the violent circumstances of their deposition. From their condition and position within the collapse deposit it could be inferred that the two objects were present on an upper storey of a house at the moment of its destruction by fire, an event that occurred sometime in the seventh century AD.

After a brief introduction to the house, its spatial divisions and the material culture assemblage present at the moment of its destruction, we investigate the potential routes through which the aegyptiaca travelled to Aphrodisias, a site located about 140 km inland from the west coast of Asia Minor. The Aphrodisian finds are contextualised with reference to objects of Egyptian manufacture discovered in similar contexts across Asia Minor, often in coastal regions. We consider the effects the statuettes may have had on their Aphrodisian viewers, and in particular how they thrust Egypt into a late antique household. Which interpretations of these objects were available to a late antique observer? A final section returns to the immediate find context, considering how the associations of such exotic objects shifted as they were retained by multiple generations of a single household.

Byzantinische Zeitschrift , 2020

This article examines literary, epigraphic and archaeological evidence for the Christian reidenti... more This article examines literary, epigraphic and archaeological evidence for the Christian reidentification of statuary and reliefs as biblical scenes and protagonists, saints and angels. It argues that Christian identifications were promulgated, amongst others by local bishops, to make sense of imagery of which the original identity had been lost and/or was no longer meaningful. Three conditions for a new identification are discussed: the absence of an epigraphic label, geographical and/or chronological distance separating the statue from its original context of display, and the presence of a specific attribute or characteristic that could become the prompt for reidentification. In their manipulation and modernization of older statuary, Christians showed a much greater appreciation of the statuary medium than generally assumed.

Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2017

In 2009, a set of under-lifesized statues was discovered on top of the pavement of the main N–S c... more In 2009, a set of under-lifesized statues was discovered on top of the pavement of the main N–S colonnaded street of Sagalassos. Their particular find contexts suggest that they had been on display along the street on top of statue brackets in its final phase. These statuettes not only survived in the cityscape into the 7th c. A.D., they were part of a large-scale renovation of the lower town datable to the second quarter of the 6th c. This exceptionally late example of displayed pagan mythological statuary provides information on what pieces of statuary were still available and considered suitable for re-use in the Early Byzantine period. In addition, the collection's composition can inform us about the preferred appearance of a bustling urban thoroughfare and something of the values and beliefs of the population at that period, since “whereas the common folk […] did not read Homer and Pindar, everyone — the butcher, the candlemaker, and the lower-class saint — could and did look at these statues”.

Istanbuler Mitteilungen 63, 2013

Excavations undertaken between 2005 and 2009 on the north-south Colonnaded Street of Sagalassos (... more Excavations undertaken between 2005 and 2009 on the north-south Colonnaded Street of Sagalassos (southwest Turkey) have provided valuable information concerning the very early, Tiberian, planning and creation of such a street in Asia Minor. Moreover, after having functioned as the backbone of the town for almost five centuries, the street was thoroughly renovated. Its colonnades were reconstructed, the pavement repaired, a new staircase and a street fountain were installed, and a new statuary display was created. As such, it is also a rare example of a highly representative, sixth-century colonnaded street, as well as one of the last major civic undertakings in the entire Eastern Mediterranean. This article reconstructs the main building phases of the Colonnaded Street at Sagalassos in detail and puts them into context by comparing them with contemporaneous undertakings in and outside of Asia Minor.

Die von 2005 bis 2009 durchgeführten Grabungen an der Nord-Süd-Säulenstraße von Sagalassos (SW-Türkei) erbrachten angesichts der Datierung in tiberische Zeit wertvolle Hinweise im Hinblick auf die sehr frühe Planung und Entstehung solch einer Straße in Kleinasien. Nach einer Nutzung von nahezu fünf Jahrhunderten wurde die Säulenstraße nicht zuletzt wegen ihrer zentralen urbanistischen Bedeutung vollständig erneuert. Die Maßnahmen umfassten den Neuaufbau der Kolonnaden, die Ausbesserung des Straßenpflasters, die Errichtung einer neuen Treppe und eines Straßenbrunnens sowie die Neuaufstellung von Skulpturen. Als eines der seltenen Beispiele repräsentativer Säulenstraßen des 6. Jahrhunderts zählt die Nord-Süd-Säulenstraße von Sagalassos zu den letzten großen urbanistischen Unternehmungen der Spätantike im östlichen Mittelmeerraum. Der Beitrag widmet sich der Rekonstruktion der Hauptbauphasen der Säulenstraße von Sagalassos und stellt diese nach einer vergleichenden Analyse in Zusammenhang mit zeitgleichen Projekten in und außerhalb Kleinasiens.

2005 ve 2009 yılları arasında Sagalassos’ta Kuzey-Güney doğrultulu sütunlu caddede yürütülen kazı calışmaları Tiberius dönemine tarihlendirilmesiyle Küçük Asya’da bu denli bir caddenin erken planlama ve oluşumu hakkında önemli bulgular ortaya çıkartmıştır. Yaklaşık beş yüzyıllık bir kullanımdan sonra şehrin belkemiği olan bu cadde kapsamlı olarak yenilenmiştir. Işlevler arasında kolonadlarin yeniden yapımı, yol döşemesinin onarımı, yeni bir merdivenin ve çeşmenin oluşumu ve yeni heykellerin yerleştirilmesi yer almaktadır. Bu durumda bu cadde hem yüksek prestijli altıncı yüzyıl sütunlu caddelerin nadir bir örneğini oluşturmaktadır hem de doğu Akdeniz bölgesinde yer alan en geç kentsel projelerden birisini teşkil etmektedir. Makale Sagalassos’taki Kuzey-Güney doğrultulu sütunlu caddenin başlıca yapılaşma dönemlerini rekonstre edip ve karşılastırıcı bir analizden sonra Küçük Asya’da ve dışında bulunan ayni tarihli yapılarla olan ilişkisini sorgulamaktadır.

Antiquité Tardive 22, 2014

This article researches the relation between episcopal complexes and pilgrimage churches on the o... more This article researches the relation between episcopal complexes and pilgrimage churches on the one hand and colonnaded streets and avenues on the other. In a first phase, such church complexes were endowed with a passive role, being integrated behind the colonnades of a main traffic vein together with the more classical public monuments of the city in order to be located as centrally and visible as possible. In a second phase, both cathedrals and pilgrimage churches assumed an active role in shaping the city since their existence triggered the construction of new colonnaded streets. Furthermore, the architectural type of the colonnaded avenue was integrated within larger church complexes. In addition, one can note that tetrapyla and arches, monuments traditionally associated with colonnaded streets, appeared in their “Christian” successors as well. The reasons for assimilating the architectural model of a colonnaded street are twofold: the complexes mentioned drew large numbers of visitors and needed an easy access, and, more importantly, church leaders obviously understood that a highly representational approach would exalt ecclesiastical activity within the church complex itself and, in the case of full-fledged colonnaded streets, would carry ecclesiastical influence beyond the church precinct.

Domination ecclésiastique et espace urbain.
La rue à colonnade comme toile de fond de l’affirmation chrétienne

Cet article étudie la relation entre, d'une part, les complexes épiscopaux et églises de pèlerinage et, d'autre part, les rues à colonnades et les avenues. Dans un premier temps, les complexes de ce type jouèrent un rôle plutôt passif dans l'urbanisme. Au même titre que les autres monuments publics plus classiques, ils étaient insérés derrière les colonnades encadrant les axes de circulation principaux, principalement dans le but d'assurer leur visibilité à un emplacement central. Dans un second temps, les cathédrales et églises de pèlerinage assumèrent un rôle résolument plus actif dans la définition des espaces urbains, en suscitant cette fois la construction de nouvelles rues à colonnades. La rue à colonnades, en tant que type architectural, s'est ainsi retrouvée partie intégrante de complexes d'églises plus larges. On note en outre le maintien, dans cet environnement "chrétien", du rôle de monuments traditionnellement associés à ces rues, tels que les tétrapyles et autres arches. Les raisons de cette assimilation du concept architectural de la rue à colonnade sont doubles: ces complexes attiraient d'une part un public nombreux et nécessitaient un accès facile. Mais, d'autre part, les leaders de l'Église ont rapidement saisi l'intérêt hautement représentatif de ces structures pour l'exaltation des activités ecclésiastiques, non seulement à l'intérieur même des complexes, mais également au-delà de leur limites pour s'étendre à la rue à colonnades qui leur est associée.

Journal of Late Antiquity, 2012

"""Both their decorative façades and the cooling effect of flowing water caused fountains to have... more """Both their decorative façades and the cooling effect of flowing water caused fountains to have an extremely pleasing effect on the hot and crowded cities of the Eastern Mediterranean during the Imperial period. Wayfarers could enjoy the view, drink the water, rest on the railings and steps and relax for a moment or two before moving on. Libanius testified to the ongoing importance of water in the 4th century when he praised the abundant water resources of his native city Antioch-on-the-Orontes, claiming that ‘We surpass the beautiful waters of other cities by the abundance of ours’. In spite of this praise, Late Antique fountains have hitherto aroused little interest among scholars, although a multitude of studies have been devoted to their Imperial predecessors. General overviews on newly built Late Antique fountains as well as on the maintenance of earlier examples are still few and far between. Indeed, the majority of existing studies tend to focus on monumental fountains in the original building phase, thoughtlessly dismissing subsequent structural, decorative and technical alterations or vaguely designating them as occurring in a ‘Byzantine building phase’. Yet, because these fountains were still functioning well into Late Antiquity, they remained an integral part of the cityscape for the centuries that followed.

Recently, the renewed interest in the evolution of the urban fabric and water supply networks in Late Antiquity – for instance at Aphrodisias, Sagalassos, Ephesus, Laodikeia and Gortyn – has resulted in the publication of studies on previously unknown monumental fountains as well as in the restudy of others. This article intends to combine the results of such isolated studies and to present a comprehensive overview of fountains in the Eastern Mediterranean of Late Antiquity, with a strong focus on Asia Minor and Greece. The aim is to outline the appearance of newly built fountains as well as to sketch the energy invested in the maintenance of earlier ones. Moreover, the utilitarian function of fountains and their meaning within the Late Antique cityscape will be examined. Finally, we wish to address broader issues such as the presumed reduced water supply reported in some cities of Late Antiquity and the importance of fountains for the decorative aspect of the urban fabric."""

Asia Minor witnessed a resurgence of construction and renovation activities in the Theodosian age... more Asia Minor witnessed a resurgence of construction and renovation activities in the Theodosian age, and in particular in the last twenty years of the 4th and the first twenty years of the 5th century AD. In fact, the typical Late Antique city, with its imposing fortification walls, heterogeneous street colonnades and agora porticoes, and monumental churches replacing earlier temples, came into being in these decades. A confrontation of the material remains with contemporaneous historical, political, social and religious events and changes, would suggest that these urbanistic interventions were the result of unrelated factors arising in just a few decades’ time. Despite the absence of a deliberate Theodosian policy of urban renewal, the care for and energy invested in the cityscape does testify to continuance of aesthetic principles and representational concerns, not only at Constantinople, but also in the provincial capitals and even in the smaller cities of the region.

American Journal of Archaeology, Jan 1, 2010

Pagan and mythological statuary still functioned in the Late Roman city. Studies on this kind of ... more Pagan and mythological statuary still functioned in the Late Roman city. Studies on this kind of imagery all too often focus on only one aspect or one type of action, frequently assuming that destruction was the preferred way of dealing with conflicted images. In order to understand the status of statues in an age when the Christian faith was steadily conquering the Roman world, an overview based on various kinds of evidence, ranging from production and conscious preservation to violent destruction, is necessary. This article brings this data together for the cities of Asia Minor, in order to enhance the general picture.

Sagalassos erlebte im 6. Jh. n. Chr. eine Blüte ungeahnten Ausmaßes. Die Stadt wurde noch einmal ... more Sagalassos erlebte im 6. Jh. n. Chr. eine Blüte ungeahnten Ausmaßes. Die Stadt wurde noch einmal mit den typischen repräsentativen Bauten einer antiken Metropole geschmückt, ältere Gebäude wurden restauriert. Auch die klassischen Götter kamen im Zuge der Baumaßnahmen zu einem regelrechten Comeback im Stadtbild des bereits vollständig christianisierten Sagalassos.

Babesch: Bulletin Antieke Beschaving, Jan 1, 2009

In Late Antiquity, cities and other important settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean almost com... more In Late Antiquity, cities and other important settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean almost completely disappeared from view behind massive fortifications. The walled areas could then only be entered through a small number of highly visible gates. This article investigates the physical appearance of these gates. It presents an overview of their basic requirements and their additional architectural and figurative decoration. It then attempts to explain why these features were used and how this relates to the nature of the settlement – imperial capital, ‘normal’ city, border town or Christian sanctuary - to which they belonged.

Ancient Society, Jan 1, 2009

Encroachment, or the usurpation of public space by secondary structures, is nowadays considered i... more Encroachment, or the usurpation of public space by secondary structures, is nowadays considered indicative of economic prosperity. This opinion is largely based on laws and literary sources, whereas many archaeological remains are still categorised as the houses of squatters. This article considers mainly archaeological sources which show the evolution of encroachment throughout Late Antiquity. An overview of its topographical settings within the city and its connection to other buildings is offered, together with an assessment of its appearance and function. These elements are then used to establish the degree of public involvement in its construction and to explain the chronological and topographical spread of encroachment.

Cyprus in the Long Late Antiquity. History and Archaeology Between the Sixth and Eighth Centuries, 2023

American Journal of Archaeology, 2024

Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 2024

Aegyptiaca. Journal of the History of Reception of Ancient Egypt, 2022

Byzantinische Zeitschrift , 2020

Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2017

Istanbuler Mitteilungen 63, 2013

Antiquité Tardive 22, 2014

Domination ecclésiastique et espace urbain.
La rue à colonnade comme toile de fond de l’affirmation chrétienne

Journal of Late Antiquity, 2012

American Journal of Archaeology, Jan 1, 2010

Babesch: Bulletin Antieke Beschaving, Jan 1, 2009

Ancient Society, Jan 1, 2009

Being Pagan, Being Christian in Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages , 2023

This chapter focuses on the survival and diverse usage of paganmythological statuary until the en... more This chapter focuses on the survival and diverse usage of paganmythological
statuary until the end of Antiquity. In order to explain its
continued functioning in late antique centuries, I discuss two ways of
viewing: the secular (whereby gods and divinities are seen as symbolic
or emblematic for specific aspects of life, particularly elite life), and
the religious (whereby gods and divinities retain power and agency).
Whereas secular explanations have been given ample attention in
recent decades, the power of statues in Late Antiquity, and especially
their positive power in the eyes of people who self-identified as Christian,
has been largely neglected. I argue that it is worthwhile exploring
this route further to help explain why these statues remained so omnipresent
in the cityscape.

Magnification and Miniaturization in Religious Communication in Antiquity and Modernity: Materialities and Meanings, 2023

The purpose of this paper is to reassess the potential role of pagan-mythological marble statuett... more The purpose of this paper is to reassess the potential role of pagan-mythological marble statuettes in religious communications at the end of Antiquity. I will start this paper with an assessment of our evidence for statuettes in Late Antiquity, followed by a discussion of basic but often overlooked and highly important methodological considerations. After, I will briefly describe two contexts in which pagan-mythological statuettes were still on display in the first half of the seventh century: the House of the Painted Inscription (Casa dell’iscrizione dipinta) at Hierapolis (western Turkey) and the colonnaded main street of Sagalassos (south-western Turkey). In both contexts, the statuettes were preserved by multiple generations of viewers and users long after many other statuettes had already disappeared. In attempting to understand what these statuettes were doing so late in time, in a final section I broaden my view to contemporary practices involving 3D depictions of human forms, from the very small to the large, and to practices involving pagan-mythological imagery more broadly.

E. K. Fowden et al. (eds) Cities as palimpsests? Responses to Antiquity in Eastern Mediterranean Urbanism, 2022

Transformations of City and Countryside in the Byzantine Period

In the last few decades, a lot of attention has been devoted to the development of the city in la... more In the last few decades, a lot of attention has been devoted to the development of the city in late antique and early Byzantine times. Changes in the late antique and Byzantine countryside have been receiving more attention too; surveys in cities’ hinterlands and territories have multiplied and new approaches to evaluate the productivity of the land have been introduced. Although the interdependence of city and countryside is widely acknowledged, when urban and rural physical evolutions are compared, the spotlight generally is on the city, which is said to have undergone a ‘ruralisation.’
In this article, I revisit urban-rural relations, but I move the focus to rural settlements. In many regions of the eastern Mediterranean they were doing well. Between the fourth and seventh/eighth century, villages grew in size and number and played an important part in the economy as producers but possibly also consumers. I refrain from making general statements on rural versus urban ‘prosperity’ in late antique centuries – something that is exceptionally hard to determine – but instead focus on three noticeable developments in urban-rural relations. After a quick look at the villages of the Aezanitis, where investments in rural architectural decoration match or even outdo those in the urban centre of Aizanoi, I discuss rural settlements in Cilicia that built late antique tetrapyla and arches, and then move on to the villages of Jordan where one of the most remarkable collections of seventh-century mosaics and epigraphy can be found. Finally, I raise some questions concerning the initiators of building works in villages.

Graphic Signs of Power and Faith in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Essays on Early Graphicacy, 2017

The Seventh Century: Continuity or Discontinuity?, 2015

The Afterlife of Greek and Roman Sculpture: Late Antique Responses and Practices, 2015

The many statues found amidst the urban ruins of Asia Minor indicate that in this region statuary... more The many statues found amidst the urban ruins of Asia Minor indicate that in this region statuary was regarded as a potentially valuable medium of expression until the end of Antiquity. Starting from a reconstruction of the “career” of a collection of mythological statues found at Sagalassos (Pisidia, modern Turkey), this article discusses the possible ways in which statuary was put to use in Asia Minor in the Late Roman age. It examines factors that might have influenced a statue’s lifespan, including the status of the city in the administrative hierarchy, a site’s access to newly carved items, the importance of civic pride, the longevity of classical culture in the region, and, finally, the progress of Christianity.

Die Christianisierung Kleinasiens in der Spätantike (Asia Minor Studien), 2017

When researching the Christianisation of a region in Late Antiquity, an enormous amount of eviden... more When researching the Christianisation of a region in Late Antiquity, an enormous amount of evidence of diverse nature – historical, archaeological, epigraphic, iconographic, sometimes numismatic – can be taken into account. In order to present it in a comprehensible manner, choices must always be made: one may opt to focus on all evidence belonging to one of the abovementioned categories, attempt to paint a general picture without going into too much detail, maybe describe the status quo in one particular time period, or, as will also be the case in this article, present all possible evidence on one single location throughout late antique and early Byzantine times. In the following pages, we will discuss all socio-religious changes detectable on and around the Upper Agora of Sagalassos from the fourth until the seventh century. This town centre is very well suited to trace both the more institutional development of Christianity including temple conversions and church construction, as well as changes in private religious experience. We will present pertinent architectural evidence and statuary decoration next to small objects found on top of this civic square as well as in its immediate surroundings. It will be shown that classical iconography and ancient customs were far more long-lasting than is generally assumed, both in the public domain and in the private sphere where they endure beyond the end of Antiquity.

Urbanitas. Veränderungen von Stadtbild und urbaner Lebenswelt in der Spätantike und frühbyzantinischen Zeit. Assos im Spiegel städtischer Zentren Westkleinasiens (Byzantium between Orient and Occident)

Himmelwärts und erdverbunden? Religiöse und wirtschaftliche Aspekte spätantiker Lebensrealität (Band 1 des Clusters 7 des DAI)

This paper discusses sixth- and seventh-century building and termination deposits found during th... more This paper discusses sixth- and seventh-century building and termination deposits found during the excavations of a commercial-residential building at Sagalassos (SW Taurus Mountains, Turkey). The nature of the objects deposited, the condition of the objects at the time of their deposition, the exact contexts of the objects and the nature of the building, structure or item of furniture they were associated with are scrutinised. After a discussion on how such deposits relate to contemporary Christianity, this paper ends with an inquiry into the reasons for the general neglect of such ritual deposits in studies of the late antique eastern Mediterranean and highlights the advantages of integrating archaeological evidence in the research on late antique religion.

The Material Culture of Magic

A. Busine (ed.) Religious Practices and Christianization of the Late Antique City (Religions of the Graeco-Roman World)

This paper aims to examine how church leaders tactically used and, if necessary, adapted secular ... more This paper aims to examine how church leaders tactically used and, if necessary, adapted secular building components, decoration and mechanisms in order to turn Christian centres into pleasant venues for the larger civic community. The attractiveness and reception of churches could, in particular, be enhanced by elaborating the design of their entry by means of colonnaded streets, hemicycles, fountains, arches and tetrapyla. An overview of the way such elements were integrated into ecclesiastical complexes is provided.

Learning Cities in Late Antiquity. The Local Dimension of Education, 2019

In this article, I examine how representative the philhellenic opinions of the School of Gaza wer... more In this article, I examine how representative the philhellenic opinions of the School of Gaza were for sixth-century city-dwellers at large by discussing the contemporary urban environment. In particular, I scrutinize the fate of the theatre and that of statuary decoration, both aspects of the city that were closely associated with classical Antiquity and Hellenic culture. By the start of the sixth century they had known a very long history. However, amongst others because of their recurrent and sometimes strong references to pagan and mythological personae, myths and customs, they were not particularly appreciated by more extremist Christian factions in society. I examine archaeological evidence for both theatres and statuary in the Late Roman province of Palaestina Prima to which Gaza belonged, but supplement these data with further evidence from the Roman Near East and Asia Minor. In addition, I stress the importance of archaeological evidence for estimating the continuity of classical culture. In the case of theatres, we possess quite a lot of literary evidence, both from the side of proponents and opponents, to which material remains can be added, compared and evaluated. In the case of statuary, we are a lot less well informed and it is worthwhile to check if and how archaeology can advance our knowledge and interpretation.

Himmelwärts und erdverbunden? Religiöse und wirtschaftliche Aspekte spätantiker Lebensrealität (Band 1 des Clusters 7 des DAI)

This article focusses on the appearance of shops and workshops around and on agorae as well as al... more This article focusses on the appearance of shops and workshops around and on agorae as well as along major colonnaded streets in the city centres of Asia Minor. It presents an overview of the literary and epigraphic sources for such encroachment and stresses the ever-growing contribution of archaeology in our understanding of the phenomenon. It is argued that commercial encroachment was already common long before Late Antiquity and that it was virtually always tolerated by the local government, as long as the shops and workshops did not hinder traffic or pose any other threat to their surroundings. In Late Antiquity, the proliferation of secondary structures in public space became more intensive, more of these shops and workshops were now built in durable materials, and it can be hypothesized that civic municipalities were actively involved in the phenomenon. The size and appearance of all shops and workshops was in any case still controlled by law. The appearance of city centres in Asia Minor no doubt changed drastically, but it is quite clear that the settlements were thriving into the sixth century and that there was often still a balance between aesthetic concerns on the one hand and commercial interests and pragmatic approaches to the urban fabric on the other. The article further touches upon the social status of the owners and occupants of these buildings and spaces. It explores three possible scenarios: that merchants or artisans had acquired ownership of public space themselves, that they rented the space from another, wealthier, individual, or that they leased the space from the civic government. An evaluation of all the evidence suggests that individuals of middling fortune played a significant and active part in the evolution of the urban landscape and civic life in Late Antiquity.

A History of Early Christian and Byzantine Art in 100 (Alternative) Objects

I. Jacobs (ed.) Production and Prosperity in the Theodosian period. (Interdisciplinary Studies in Ancient Culture and Religion), 2014

I. Jacobs (ed.) Production and Prosperity in the Theodosian period (Interdisciplinary Studies in Ancient Culture and Religion), 2014

Using Images in Late Antiquity , 2014

Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology, 2016

Turkey. Home of Eternity (Europalia Turkey Exhibition 2015-2016), 2015

American Journal of Archaeology, 2016

American Journal of Archaeology, 2014

On Friday 12 June, the Cult of Saints Project, in association with the Empires of Faith Project, ... more On Friday 12 June, the Cult of Saints Project, in association with the Empires of Faith Project, co-organises a colloquium dedicated to the iconography of saints in late antique art. Six talks will be given by members of the two project teams (Jaś Elsner, Bryan Ward-Perkins, Maria Lidova, and Efthymios Rizos) and guest speakers (John Mitchell and Ine Jacobs), discussing aspects of the emergent iconography of saints in Christian art.

Cyprus in Late Antiquity was a thriving and densely populated province. During the sixth and seve... more Cyprus in Late Antiquity was a thriving and densely populated province. During the sixth and seventh centuries, the growing affluence of the island is conspicuous in comparison to other regions of the Eastern Roman Empire. In the traditional historical view, the late antique period on Cyprus ended abruptly as a result of the Arab raids of the mid-seventh century. The original focus of urban archaeology on monumental structures and Christian basilicas tended to stress the impact of these raids further; layers of destruction were often uncritically associated with the Arabs, overshadowing archaeological evidence that hinted at continuities beyond the mid-seventh century.

In recent decades, archaeological research on late antique Cyprus has shifted its focus away from urban centres and single monuments in favour of a more contextual perspective. Building on well-established traditions of field prospection, diachronic survey projects and small-scale excavations are revealing a complex web of settlement patterns. They have shown that economic, political and cultural contacts between the island and the wider eastern Mediterranean were continued. Moreover, they also suggest that the end or transformation of occupation on individual sites cannot always be explained by catastrophic events, but should be interpreted in terms of local adaptation to changing needs and contacts.

This symposium brings together archaeologists and historians engaged in the study of Cyprus between the sixth and eighth centuries. They will collate the results of recent and past research to arrive at a comprehensive, interdisciplinary reconstruction of life on the island in the Long Late Antiquity.

Registration link: https://www.eventbrite.co.uk/e/cyprus-in-the-long-late-antiquity-registration-132113090811

During the time preceding and including the Theodosian dynasty, or roughly the mid-4th to the mid... more During the time preceding and including the Theodosian dynasty, or roughly the mid-4th to the mid-
5th century AD, the Roman Empire drastically changed. It was facing serious external threats and eventually lost much of its territory to foreign groups and would-be federate nations. The capital of the
Empire, and therefore also the power-balance, was shifted from West to East. The political reformations of the 4th century created a central administration, smaller provinces and a very bureaucratic tax system, with the annona as most important direct taxation. At the same time, the power of the Church increased and the spread of Christianity was consolidated.

In spite of all changes and difficulties, the period appears to have been quite prosperous. This ROCT workshop will try to map production, distribution and consumption of staple goods and luxury products in both the East and the West Roman Empire. By stimulating discussion between specialists on various topics, the goal is to outline the socio-economic potential and vitality just before and during the Theodosian age and to gain insights in the mechanisms and forces underlying levels of prosperity in this hundred year time-span.

Late antique and medieval archaeologists in northwest Europe and Scandinavia have seen a surge in... more Late antique and medieval archaeologists in northwest Europe and Scandinavia have seen a surge in studies on everyday ritual practices, among them deposits intentionally placed underneath door openings, walls and floors of residential or communal structures. By contrast, research of similar deposits in Roman, late antique and medieval/Byzantine archaeology elsewhere is much rarer, though not entirely unknown. Although this difference in frequency may be the result of a real difference in practices, more likely it is due to different research traditions.

The post-Roman West and the Byzantine East are usually considered as two separate fields of scholarship, but much of the archaeological material, especially that pertaining to daily life and found in domestic contexts, in fact is very similar at least in appearance. The aim of the conference is thereby to enhance discussion between specialists of different periods and regions across the artificial borders of the different scholarly disciplines. In interpreting placed deposits, archaeologists in northern and western Europe have appropriated theories and approaches from a wide range of disciplines such as anthropology and sociology. Researchers working in eastern provinces would benefit greatly from adopting—or adapting—theoretical frameworks being established in the West. Likewise, western researchers would profit from the blossoming research on the popular reception of Christianity in eastern provinces and its impact on traditional practices. Indeed, research in the west is often reluctant to talk about either religion or ritual, and with the changes in terminology away from ‘foundation offerings’ and ‘building deposits’ to the broader ‘concealments’, ‘special’ or ‘placed’ deposits, it has become easier to avoid the matter altogether. Yet even within the official Church, both East and West, remarkably similar phenomena have been noted, although research of private practices in ecclesiastical contexts is still in its infancy. The most pervasive practice is undoubtedly the burial of relics underneath the altars of churches and, eventually, the walling in of objects inside church walls. The integration of such practices within official Christianity raises the question of whether domestic deposits should also be considered religious in nature, and to what extent.

This conference intends to overcome existing boundaries by investigating the occurrence of placed deposits, their meaning and relation with contemporaneous worldviews, popular beliefs, and orthodox religion from the fourth to tenth century AD. By inviting scholars from different backgrounds and working on diverse geographical regions and periods in time, we seek to stimulate discussion on the possible different meanings or purposes of placed deposits in order to arrive at a more accurate understanding of the mindset of people in the past.

Speakers to the conference include: Ines Beilke-Voigt, Richard Bradley, Roberta Gilchrist, Sonja Hukantaival, Ine Jacobs, John Ljungkvist, John Mitchell, James Morris, Julia Smith, Clifford Sofield, Natalia Teteriatnikov and Robert Wisniewski.

Asia Minor is considered to have been a fairly prosperous region in Late Antiquity. It was rarely... more Asia Minor is considered to have been a fairly prosperous region in Late Antiquity. It was rarely disturbed by external invasions, remained largely untouched by the continuous Roman-Persian conflict until the very end of Antiquity, was apparently well connected to the flourishing Mediterranean economy and, as the region closest to Constantinople, is assumed to have played an important part in the provisioning of the imperial capital and the imperial armies. When exactly this prosperity came to an end – the late sixth century, the early seventh, the middle of the seventh century or even later – remains a matter of debate. Likewise, the impact of factors such as the dust veil event of 536, the impact of the bubonic plague that made its first appearance in 541/542 AD, the costs and consequences of Justinian’s wars, the Persian attacks of the early seventh century and, eventually the Arab incursions of around the middle of the seventh century, remains controversial. In fact, research has focussed on these particular events to such a degree that the more general living conditions in both cities and countryside have long been neglected.

Discussions on the decline or transformation of the city in Asia Minor at the very end of Antiquity abound since the publications of Clive Foss. By contrast, the decades before have rarely been studied in their own right. In chronological overviews, they are often only implicitly present as the period between the prosperous Theodosian period and the End of Antiquity. Up until a few years ago, outside of Constantinople, there was not much evidence of new construction or large renovation works securely dated after the middle of the fifth century, with the exception of churches. This apparent absence of activity seems to have fuelled the recurrent negative view of a city in decline, a decline that then assumingly continued for more than 150 years. Recent detailed excavations and re-examinations of urban contexts in cities such as Ephesus, Aphrodisias, Laodikeia, Sagalassos and so on, as well as changing opinions on what constitutes urban vitality and a growing appreciation for urban maintenance, now hint at continued prosperity until at least the middle of the sixth century.

The majority of the population, however, did not live in urban but in rural contexts. Yet the countryside only found its proper place in regional overviews in the last two decades, thanks to an increasing amount of regional surveys in combination with a more refined pottery chronology. Our growing understanding of networks of villages and hamlets is very likely to influence the appreciation of the last decades of Late Antiquity drastically. Indeed, it would seem that the sixth century in particular is characterised not only by a ruralisation of cities, but also by the extension and flourishing of villages not only in Asia Minor, but also in the Roman Near East and Egypt.

The workshop Asia Minor in the Long Sixth Century therefore aims to bring together historians and archaeologists working on diverse aspects of Asia Minor in the sixth century, in order to produce a comprehensive impression of the quality of life during the last century or so before the end of Antiquity. Topics to be discussed include the physical development of large and small settlements, their financial situation, and the proportion between public and private investment. We will compare imperial, provincial, and local initiatives in city and countryside and examine the main motivations, including civic or personal pride, military incentives and, of course, religious stimuli. Detailed information on individual contributions is provided in the programme below. Although we are consciously avoiding focus on specific topics such as the bubonic plague or limited time periods, such as the reign of Justinian, the evidence presented will be used to form opinions on the impact of the plague on living circumstances in the sixth century and to evaluate whether or not the Justinianic period, which is the only period in the course of the sixth century that has drawn ample attention, was as vital as Procopius would lead us to believe.

Using Images in Late Antiquity, 2014