Md Mizanur Rahman | Qatar University (original) (raw)

Papers by Md Mizanur Rahman

Immigrant organisations tend to engage with immigrant communities within a host country and their... more Immigrant organisations tend to engage with immigrant communities within a host country and their country of origin through various transnational activities. This study explores the emergence of immigrant organisations among new immigrant groups in the United States by shedding light on opportunity structure, group characteristics, and collective engagement. Empirically, this paper draws upon interviews of 33 Bangladeshi immigrant organisations in the United States. This paper reports that the intersection of opportunity structure and group characteristics creates a favourable environment for the emergence of immigrant organisations within a new immigrant group. This research suggests that local engagement is a process of adapting to a new environment while still holding onto the cultural norms and values of one’s home country, and transnational engagement improves the lives of the marginalised people in their country of origin.

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South Asian labour migration to the GCC States is a debt-financed migration in which labour dias... more South Asian labour migration to the GCC States is a debt-financed migration in which labour diasporas mobilise resources from a variety of sources, often at exorbitant interest rates, to cover migration costs. In the event of the COVID pandemic, job losses and involuntary returns compound the problem of debt-financed migration, affecting the transnational livelihood of migrant families. This paper explores how the debt-financed migration shapes the transnational livelihood of Gulf labour diasporas amid the pandemic. Empirically, this paper draws on the experiences of 60 Gulf migrants from the Indian state of Bihar. This study reports that the families diversify their labour resources by joining Gulf labour market and migration generates remittances that provide improved livelihood for their families. Although unforeseen events such as the pandemic may delay migration episodes and thus mount the debt burden on migrants, migrants nevertheless find ways to join the Gulf labour market and erk out a trananational livelihood.

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Tis paper examines the healthcare provisions for migrants in Qatar. Migration and health are intr... more Tis paper examines the healthcare provisions for migrants in Qatar. Migration and health are intricately entwined in the GCC states, with ramifcations for both migrants and their host countries in the Gulf. Te GCC states are home to nearly 30 million non-national residents or migrants, constituting the largest concentration of temporary migrants in the world. Te provision of healthcare services to such a large migrant population presents a tremendous challenge for most Gulf states. It is worth pointing out that migration to the GCC states is inherently transient in nature, which further compounds the healthcare challenge. Tis paper explores how the GCC states respond to the rising demand for migrant healthcare by focusing on healthcare infrastructure and healthcare provisions for migrants in Qatar. Te study reveals that Qatar has invested heavily in the expansion of healthcare infrastructure in tandem with its growing migrant population. Qatar ofers healthcare services to the increasing migrant population through the Hamad health card, which allows its holders to access public healthcare services. Tis study suggests that there is a need for more expansion of public healthcare facilities to meet the expanding healthcare needs in coming years.

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This article examines the migration of international students to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GC... more This article examines the migration of international students to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states from a comparative perspective. Over the past few decades, the GCC states have made significant investments in their education sector, leading to notable improvements in educational infrastructure and quality, the establishment of new universities and knowledge parks, as well as the emergence of international university branches. Consequently, this transformation has attracted a growing number of international students to the Gulf region, including non-national resident students and foreign students arriving in the Gulf specifically for educational purposes. Student migration entails more than just entering a host country; it also involves university admissions policies, tuition fees, scholarship programs, immigration status and the pathways available for employment after graduation. Therefore, this article delves into the intricate aspects of student migration to the GCC states, shedding light on migration patterns, student compositions, admissions processes, financial considerations and integration into the Gulf labour market. The findings of this study indicate that the GCC states have made some headway in managing international student migration. However, there is still a need for the development of a comprehensive student migration policy that fully capitalises on the benefits of student migration to promote economic development in the Gulf states.

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Labour migration in the context of South-South migration is generally conceived as a multidimensi... more Labour migration in the context of South-South migration is generally conceived as a multidimensional process that comprises three distinct subprocesses: emigration, immigration, and return migration. There is growing consensus that return migration is the least understood of these three subprocesses. In a similar vein, a gendered analysis has become more integral to migration scholarship today; yet one area where gender matters but has not been thoroughly studied is the return migration process. This paper explores how gender shapes the return migration experiences by reflecting on four transnational sites of return migration such as migrants' socio-demographic features, working and living conditions in the Gulf, remittance control and use, and finally return and reintegration. Empirically, this research draws on the experiences of selected Gulf male and female return migrants in Accra, Ghana. The study reports that the gender dimension of returnees' experiences constitutes an avenue of migration research that has the potential to produce a more nuanced understanding of gendered migration scholarship in the Global South.

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The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Global Studies, 2023

The paper examines the fragility, fragmentation, and crisis in the Middle East and North Africa (... more The paper examines the fragility, fragmentation, and crisis in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) by dissecting the region into three subregions-Maghreb, Mashreq, and the GCC-and elaborating on their complex contours, diverse ideological orientations, and unavoidable outcomes. Politically, economically, demographically, and ethnically heterogeneous, and religiously reasonably homogenous, the MENA records high conflict rates. There is a lack of unity in diversity, hurting regional cooperation and cohesion. We argue that fragility and fragmentation lead to persistent inter-and intra-state conflict, high unemployment, water disputes, deepening poverty, recurrent famine, and growing numbers of refugees and displacement. By referring to examples from Maghreb, Mashreq, and the GCC, the paper shows the interplay between fragility and resilience and thus attempts to offer a nuanced understanding of the factors that trigger and sustain fragmentation and conflict in the region. The insights into the dynamics of fragility, fragmentation, and crisis highlight the imperatives of cooperation and cohesion in regional integration.

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Journal Article , 2023

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY

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Sustainability, 2021

Research on ethnic entrepreneurship has generated substantial literature on the devel- opment of ... more Research on ethnic entrepreneurship has generated substantial literature on the devel- opment of ethnic businesses among different immigrant groups in North America. Such studies tend to focus on the emergence of immigrant entrepreneurship among earlier immigrant groups by highlighting either the group characteristics or the opportunity structure. Existing studies also tend to overlook the importance of innovation in immigrants’ small businesses due to the marginality of immigrant businesses. Thus, there is a dearth of research on new immigrant communities in the USA that illuminates immigrants’ innovative practices. Drawing on the experiences of 50 Bangladeshi entrepreneurs in New York, this research examined how this emerging immigrant group transformed into immigrant entrepreneurs through the investigation of their innovative practices in small business. This paper determined that immigrant entrepreneurs are embedded within the dynamics of the immigration trajectory and the broader context of American society. Although these new immigrants were driven towards the lower end of the economy, this study found that innovations have expanded the breadth and depth of their businesses and made their businesses different and rewarding.

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Working Paper, 2021

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The Gulf region, rich in history, culture, and resources, is one of the fastest changing and most... more The Gulf region, rich in history, culture, and resources, is one of the fastest changing and most important economic and political regions and yet least-understood region. The region has not only experienced unprecedented changes in the social, economic and political landscapes in the last several decades but also become instrumental to changesin nei ghbouring regions that share significant flows of goods, capital and labour with theGulf states. The forces and means that have brought about changes to the six member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) are complex and merit rigorous scientific inquiry. This series is dedicated to serving growing academic interests in the dynamic, complex and strategically important six member states of the GCC: Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, the UAE, and Bahrain, offering a scholarly publication platform to the scholars inthe regi on and globally. The Gulf Studies series takes an interdisciplinary approach to documenting the changes taking place in the Gulf societies, and the evolving relationshipbetw een the Gulf and the other regions. The series is dedicated to advancing a non-Western perspectives for studying societies in the Gulf, and their interactions with the restof th e world.

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Migration and Development, 2019

ABSTRACT Local migrant organization is an emerging phenomenon in many emigrant countries, wher... more ABSTRACT
Local migrant organization is an emerging phenomenon in many emigrant countries, where such an organization is formed and run by current or former migrants and engages in a range of philan- thropic activities for community development. Research on migrant organizations tends to focus either on immigrant organizations located in the host countries or on transnational migrant organiza- tions engaged in diaspora philanthropy with origin country. Contrary to mainstream research on migrant organizations, this paper looks at the local migrant organizations and their engage- ments in emigrant countries through a case study in India. Drawing on selected local migrant organizations that cater to healthcare needs in India, this paper investigates how they evolve and mobi- lize resources, what sort of healthcare activities they are carrying out, and how such collective efforts are contributing to the health- care needs for the underserved community. This study reports that local migrant organizations tend to be small and resource-poor, but they reach out to the Indian periphery and serve the underprivi- leged sections of the society.

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Migration and Development, 2018

An increasing number of male migrants are taking part in intra- and inter-regional migration in A... more An increasing number of male migrants are taking part in intra- and inter-regional migration in Asia, leaving their wives behind at home. Their wives, whom we call emigrant wives, often adapt to new roles and responsibilities and thus undergo empowerment in the migra- tion process. This paper examines the impact of male migration on the empowerment of emigrant wives by comparing and contrasting the experiences of emigrant wives vis-à-vis non-emigrant wives. The research identifies and describes four major areas where emigrant wives tend to engage in the absence of their migrant husbands: access to economic resources, physical mobility, residential inde- pendence and decision-making role in key family affairs. Empirically, this study draws on fieldwork at two migration-source villages in Bangladesh. The study reports that emigrant wives gain new experi- ences in dealing with family and wider society in comparison with non-emigrant wives, and thus that migration exposes them to processes of greater empowerment.

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Asia and Pacific Migration Journal, 2018

Canada has developed a comprehensive immigration policy to accept different types of immigrants u... more Canada has developed a comprehensive immigration policy to accept different types of immigrants under its economic, family and humanitarian immigration categories. Canada invites over a quarter-million immigrants in a year. Many of these immigrants do not find suitable jobs upon arrival in Canada. Some of these immigrants choose to open their own businesses and eventually become entrepreneurs. Drawing on the experiences of Bangladeshi immigrants in Canada, this paper examines how immigrants reposition themselves to become immigrant entrepreneurs in the settlement process. Findings suggest that immigrant entrepreneurship is embedded within the dynamics of immigration trajectory and the broader context of the receiving society. Even though Bangladeshis are driven toward the lower end of the economy, innovations have expanded the breadth and depth of their businesses and made their businesses different and rewarding.

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Migrant labour has been an integral part of the social and economic fabric of the Gulf societies.... more Migrant labour has been an integral part of the social and economic fabric of the Gulf societies. While labour migration has affected many aspects of the lives of migrants and their receiving states in the Gulf, one of the most visible but often neglected migration outcomes is the development of migrant-operated businesses across the Gulf states. Evidently, many of these businesses are owned and run by migrants in collaboration with kafeels. Drawing on the experiences of Bangladeshi migrant entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia, this article explores the dynamics of Gulf migration, by identifying the transition from migrant worker to migrant entrepreneur, and explaining the making of migrant entrepreneurship within the temporary migration process. The study suggests that migrant entrepreneurship is embedded within the dynamics of the migration trajectory and the broader factors on which this depends. Notwithstanding their marginal character, the Bangladeshi enterprises in this study have flourished because of migrants’ willingness to embrace innovation. The article concludes with a call for identifying the best way to recognize migrant entrepreneurs’ contribution to economic development in Saudi Arabia.

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Abstract: Canada’s skilled worker program is designed to attract those educated and experienced i... more Abstract:
Canada’s skilled worker program is designed to attract those educated and experienced individuals from around the world who are eligible to integrate into Canada’s labour market upon arrival. However, many skilled and other non-business-class immigrants do not find suitable jobs upon arrival in Canada. Some of them choose to open their own businesses and eventually become entrepreneurs. Drawing on the experiences of Bangladeshi immigrants, this paper examines how immigrants reposition themselves from the rank of non-business-class immigrants to that of entrepreneurs in the settlement process. The paper reports that migrant entrepreneurship is embedded within the dynamics of immigration trajectory and the broader context of the receiving society. Even though they are driven towards the lower end of the economy, innovations have expanded the breadth and depth of their businesses and made their businesses different and rewarding.

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Immigrant-receiving governments set rules to control the volume, duration of stay, skill composit... more Immigrant-receiving governments set rules to control the volume, duration of stay, skill composition, and ethnic, racial, and geographical origin of the migrants they receive (for details, see Hammar 1985; Weiner 1993; Joppke 1999; Zolberg 1999; Hollifield 2000; Debrah 2002; Koslowski 2005; Boswell 2007; Rahman and Ullah 2012). The role that receiving countries play in migration control needs to be understood in context and in all its complexity (Rahman and Ullah 2012). Theories of international migration have primarily focused on non-state actors in explaining the causes and perpetuation of international migration (Hollifield 2000). However, there is evidence that states devise rules of entry and exit for potential migrants in order to control their borders and ensure sovereignty and security. As well as devising rules revolving around issues of control and security, states also develop policies to incorporate immigrants into their society and economy. Since the 1980s, work on the politics of international migration has tended to “bring the state back in” to social-scientific analyses of migration (Hollifield 2000: 137). While the present book accentuates the importance of sociological and economic variables in the analysis of labour migration, it also acknowledges the importance of the state in migration control, and therefore elaborates on its role in regulating the volume and composition of population movements across international borders.

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Abstract Migration has no respect for either borders or boundaries. Although the title of this vo... more Abstract Migration has no respect for either borders or boundaries. Although the title of this volume is ‘International Migration in Southeast Asia,’ the movements of people have occurred and continue to be within the region, between regions in Asia, and across the North-South divide. The region is home to some of the largest labor surplus countries, namely the Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Myanmar. Research on contemporary migration in Asia are dominated by the view that migration is an economically driven phenomenon; hence, the overwhelming interest in labor migration. However, if migration is regarded as more than an economic phenomenon, then we can appreciate how incredibly diverse it is as a human and social experience. When we do capture the diversity of such migration trajectories within the interstices of conventional flows of people recognized by the state and mainstream scholarship, we can see how the experience of migration can be treated in a novel way.

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In this study, I explore gender dimensions of remittances under conditions of temporary migration... more In this study, I explore gender dimensions of remittances under conditions of temporary migration in Asia. This research argues that migrant remittances are influenced by not only gender but also the context of the remittances, and that both should be integrated and elaborated to capture the complexity of remittances and their development dynamics. On the basis of surveys of 150 migrants in the United Arab Emirates and 100 migrant households in Bangladesh, in this study I examine gender dimensions of remittances by linking both sending and receiving points and elaborating on four sites of remittances, where gender matters significantly: (i) the sending process, (ii) the receipt process, (iii) the use and control of remittances and, finally, (iv) the implications for the migrant households. The study reveals several gender-differentiated patterns in remittance behaviour. Female migrants remit a greater share of their earnings than their male counterparts; they prefer sisters to brothers and other family members to husbands, while men prefer brothers to sisters and fathers to wives – and, interestingly, it was males, rather than females, who remitted more to females. Women have more control over remittances than men: in the migrant–spouse remittance route, more regular contact , and consultation and negotiation about management of remittances, are reported. Women show more interest in savings than men: women's remittances tend to be invested in human capital and those of male recipients in physical capital; more females play the role of principal economic providers for the families than their male counterparts.

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The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Global Studies, 2023

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Journal Article , 2023

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Sustainability, 2021

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Working Paper, 2021

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Migration and Development, 2019

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Migration and Development, 2018

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Asia and Pacific Migration Journal, 2018

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Springer Nature, 2023

“Pearls, pirates, and petroleum,” this is how Sir Charles Belgrave summed up the story of Gulf re... more “Pearls, pirates, and petroleum,” this is how Sir Charles Belgrave summed up the story of Gulf region in his speech at the Royal Central Asian Society on June 28, 1967, upon winning the Lawrence of Arabia Medal. Since then, the region has undergone significant transformations in all spheres: social, cultural, economic, and political. Robert Barr’s assertions in his book, “The Unchanging East,” do not hold true today for places like the Arab Gulf States where the tides of change and development have been unparalleled in scope, depth, and speed. We at the Gulf Studies Center have felt the need to document the impact of these changes on the region. In order to under- stand the sweeping transformation of the region, we organized an annual conference on Social Change in the Gulf region in November 2020. Social change is gener- ally understood through shifts in human interactions and relationships that reshape cultural and social institutions. Change occurs over time and often has profound and long-term consequences for society. This volume attempts to advance our knowl- edge of social change in the Gulf region by documenting the changes in the social, cultural, economic, and political spheres of the Gulf States. This book aims to take forward the discourse on the factors, directions, and magnitudes of social change in Gulf region from multidisciplinary perspectives.
This book contains thirty-eight chapters and is divided into four parts. We broadly cover social, linguistic and cultural, economic, and political spheres of the Gulf region. The volume endeavors to narrow the gaps in our understanding of social change in the Gulf region, providing opportunities for learning from best practices as well as offering practical solutions for policy interventions. This volume aims to be comprehensive, but it is by no means all encompassing. Areas of need for future scholarship and research will become clear through our readers’ comments, reviews, and assessments. We hope that this volume will be valuable to many inspired academics who will continue to carry this line of scholarly inquiry forward.

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Migrant organizations constitute a growing sector of non-state actors that increasingly are engag... more Migrant organizations constitute a growing sector of non-state actors that increasingly are engaging with host as well as origin countries in a sustained and profound way. Through a series of case studies of Indian migrant organizations, this book shifts the emphasis from questions concerning how migrant organizations engage with host countries, to the ways in which they engage with origin countries and thereby contribute to the development process. The overseas Indian population has formed a range of migrant organizations, whose activities include mobilizing resources and connections and engaging in numerous development initiatives in India. This book examines the engagement of Indian migrant organizations in the development process in India. The focus of this book thus lies at the intersection of three key areas of concern: migrant organizations, engagement, and development. Research on migrant organizations tends to centre on transnational migrant organizations in host countries, yet migrant organizations also exist in the countries of origin. This book looks at both types of migrant organizations-local and transnational organizations-and studies their engagement in the Indian healthcare and education sectors. In particular, the book discusses how these organizations have evolved, the kind of healthcare and educational projects and activities that are being carried out by them, and how such collective efforts are affecting development dynamics in the Indian healthcare and education sectors. 9780190121341 | Hardback | INR 995

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This book examines international labour migrants in the context of South–South migration with a f... more This book examines international labour migrants in the context of South–South migration with a focus on Bangladeshi migration to Singapore. Two principal questions in the South–South migration are addressed: Why and how individuals migrate for work; and what impact this temporary form of migration has for migrants and their families. The book adopts a relatively new methodological approach to labour migration by linking different phases that migrants undergo in the migration process and by combining migrants in the host country with their families in the origin country. This is achieved through identifying and addressing six key areas: (i) migration policy, (ii) social imperatives of migration (iii) recruitment, (iv) social worlds of the migrants, (v) remittance process, and finally, (vi) family development dynamics. This book introduces the bari to migration research as a unit of analysis over and above individual and family units. The book reveals how social and cultural forces both initiate and perpetuate migration, and later on influence bari dynamics.

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This book particularly addresses a relatively new approach to diaspora studies by shifting the fo... more This book particularly addresses a relatively new approach to diaspora studies by shifting the focus from conventional diaspora studies, which has so far been dominated by questions of how various diaspora groups adapt to the social, economic and political domains in the countries of settlement while seeking to maintain their own traditions and cul- tures, to the ways in which diaspora communities engage with origin countries and contribute to these countries economically and socially over time. The current thinking by academics, policymakers and donor agencies is to foster diaspora engagement to stimulate development in origin countries. In line with this global thinking about diaspora engage- ment, this book addresses the engagement of South Asian diasporas and their implications on development in South Asia. While countriesin the region face different development challenges and have different diaspora policies, questions of what roles their diaspora can play in the development of their origin countries and how to leverage diaspora engagement in development are now matters of concern. This book deals with these concerns by exploring various forms of diaspora engagement and its implications on development in South Asia.

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Remittance is the most beneficial private transaction in the global economy. The South Asian regi... more Remittance is the most beneficial private transaction in the global economy. The South Asian region accounts for about one fourth of the global remittance flows destined for developing countries, contributing to over ten per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) of South Asia. This significant amount of remittance has enormous potential for development in the region. The volume, essentially a South Asian viewpoint, provides theoretical treatments of remittance and how its development potential is translated into reality. The authors meticulously delve into the diverse mechanisms through which migrant communities remit, investigating how recipients engage in the development process in South Asia.

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In migration studies, the nexus between migration and development in the global South has been me... more In migration studies, the nexus between migration and development in the global South has been meticulously debated. However, a unanimous resolution to this debate has not been found due to the ever-changing nature of international migration. This book advances knowledge on the global debate on the migra- tion–development relationship by documenting experiences in a number of coun- tries in South Asia.
Drawing on the experiences of global South Asians, this book documents the impact of migration on the social, economic and political fields in the broader context of development. It also presents a regional experience by looking into the migration–development nexus in the context of South Asia, and analyses the role South Asian migrants and diaspora communities play in the South Asian society. Contributions from a variety of disciplinary backgrounds, including sociology, anthropology, political science, international relations and economics, document the development implications of South Asian migration. Broad in scope in terms of contents, timeline of migration and geographical coverage, the book presents empirically-based case studies involving India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Nepal and their emigrants living and working in different parts of the world.
Going beyond reporting the impacts of migration on economic development by highlighting the implications of ‘social development’ on society, this book provides a fascinating contribution to the fields of Asian Development, Migra- tion Studies and South Asian Studies.

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Gulf Studies Center Working Paper 3 , 2021

Labor migration in the Global South is generally conceived as a multidimensional process that com... more Labor migration in the Global South is generally conceived as a multidimensional process that comprises three distinct subprocesses: emigration, immigration, and return migration. There is growing consensus that return migration is the least understood of these three subprocesses. In a similar vein, a gendered analysis has become more integral to migration scholarship today; yet, one area where gender matters but has not been thoroughly studied is the return migration process. Focusing on Ghanaian returnees from the Arab Gulf states, this paper examines how gender affects the migration process by highlighting gender-based socio-demographic differences in migrant experiences in terms of working and living conditions, recruitment, remittances, and reintegration and remigration. The study reports that the gender dimension of returnees’ experiences constitutes an avenue of migration research that has the potential to produce a more nuanced understanding of gendered migration scholarship in the Global South.

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Working Paper, 2021

As the COVID-19 pandemic unfolds, the GCC countries face an unprecedented challenge of controllin... more As the COVID-19 pandemic unfolds, the GCC countries face an unprecedented challenge of controlling the spiralling COVID-19 cases. The challenge has become even more formidable in containing the virus among non-national populations, mainly migrant workers. This study explores the patterns of COVID-19 infections, identifies the challenges that the GCC states have encountered, and finally reviews the respective Gulf governments' responses to flatten the curve and limit the infection rates. The study reports that the GCC countries have been relatively successful in containing the pandemic due to Gulf governments' significant and proactive measures. This paper suggests that there is a need for developing a long- term strategy to manage such pandemics in the GCC states in near future.

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The Gulf region, rich in history, culture, and resources, is one of the fastest-changing and most... more The Gulf region, rich in history, culture, and resources, is one of the fastest-changing and most important economic and political regions and yet least-understood region. The region has not only experienced unprecedented changes in the social, economic, and political landscapes in the last several decades but also become instrumental to changes in nei ghbouring regions that share significant flows of goods, capital and labour with theGulf states. The forces and means that have brought about changes to the six member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) are complex and merit rigorous scientific inquiry. This series is dedicated to serving growing academic interests in the dynamic, complex and strategically important six member states of the GCC: Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, the UAE, and Bahrain, offering a scholarly publication platform to the scholars in the region and globally. The Gulf Studies series takes an interdisciplinary approach to documenting the changes taking place in the Gulf societies, and the evolving relationship between the Gulf and the other regions. The series is dedicated to advancing a non-Western perspective for studying societies in the Gulf, and their interactions with the rest of the world.

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Migrant labour has been an integral part of the social and economic fabric of the Gulf societies.... more Migrant labour has been an integral part of the social and economic fabric of the Gulf societies. While labour migration has affected many aspects of the lives of migrants and their receiving states in the Gulf, one of the most visible but often neglected migration outcomes is the development of migrant-operated businesses across the Gulf states. Evidently, many of these businesses are owned and run by migrants in collaboration with kafeels (sponsors). Drawing on the experiences of Bangladeshi migrant entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia, this article explores the dynamics of Gulf migration, by identifying the transition from migrant worker to migrant entrepreneur, and explaining the making of migrant entrepreneurship within the temporary migration process. The study suggests that migrant entrepreneurship is embedded within the dynamics of migration trajectory and the broader factors on which this depends. Notwithstanding their marginal character, the Bangladeshi enterprises in this study have flourished because of migrants' willingness to embrace innovation. The reconfiguration of such research, I argue, will give rise to an economic sociology of Gulf migration.

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