Mahesh A Kalra | Reserve Bank of India (original) (raw)

Papers by Mahesh A Kalra

DNA Newspaper, 2017

A survey of the monetary history of the Indian subcontinent published in the newspaper DNA to fam... more A survey of the monetary history of the Indian subcontinent published in the newspaper DNA to familiarize the lay audience about Indian monetary traditions

Coin of the Month, FINT, 2022

The article is on a fractional tanka an unpublished type from the Bengal Sultanate period in the ... more The article is on a fractional tanka an unpublished type from the Bengal Sultanate period in the FINT Collection at the Department of Islamic Numismatics (FINT) at the University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany. The article was published on the website of the FINT as 'COIN OF THE MONTH' in March 2022.

The Journal of Numismatic Society of India, 2020

This paper looks at the contribution of Maj. Gen. Forbes (1796-1855) to the modernization of the ... more This paper looks at the contribution of Maj. Gen. Forbes (1796-1855) to the modernization of the Kolkata Mint and other highlights of an illustrious career in the Bengal Engineers of the East India Company. It also highlights the commemoration of Forbes by the installation of his statue and a plaque in his name installed by Forbes' well-wishers in his memory at the St. Paul’s Cathedral, Kolkata. The Victorian era Gothic styled cathedral was incidentally created by Forbes who served as its architect thus showing his multihued achievements throughout his career in colonial era Bengal.

History of Ancient India: Volume VII: Economy, Agriculture, Crafts & Trade ed. Dilip Chakravarti, 2019

Ancient Indian Coinage evolved over a long period of nearly two millennia from the sixth century ... more Ancient Indian Coinage evolved over a long period of nearly two millennia from the sixth century before the Common Era till the twelfth century of the Common Era before the implementation of Indo-Islamic coinages by the Indo-Islamic kingdoms of the region.
During this long period, its minting techniques underwent a sea of change from an indigenous style called Punch-marked technique evolved in the pre-Buddhist and Mauryan era to Greek inspired Die-striking method along with Casting of certain series probably inspired by Chinese coinage. This paper looks at prominent coinages issued majorly during this long period across the Indian sub-continent.

The Numismatic Chronicle, 2020

In 1853 E.W. West found five copper coins with Arabic legends in the ancient cave complex of Kanh... more In 1853 E.W. West found five copper coins with Arabic legends in the ancient cave complex of Kanheri Caves in Western India. The area was sprinkled with other artefacts which had clear Buddhist iconography. Though ignorant of Arabic script, West faithfully published detailed drawings of the five copper coins. He deposited them at the Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society (BBRAS) (currently the Asiatic Society of Mumbai). The coins were published by O. Codrington in an article on Indian Sultanate coins. The importance of finding fifteenthcentury Sultanate coins in a ritualistic context of a Buddhist monastery, however, was lost on these early researchers. By revisiting West's findings, the present article highlights the significance of these finds of Sultanate-era coins in extending the lifespan of Buddhist practices in the Indian continent to the second half of the fifteenth century.

Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society JONS, 2011

The Gupta dynasty was an imperial dynasty which ruled Northern India from the fourth to the 6th c... more The Gupta dynasty was an imperial dynasty which ruled Northern India from the fourth to the 6th century. Its domains were built on the firm shoulders of Samudra Gupta (r. 335-375 C.E.), the second Gupta ruler who laid the foundations of a vast empire by conducting an Ashwamedha Yagna, defeating or humbling most North Indian rulers. Samudra Gupta issued a set of gold dinars commemorating his achievement.
Similarly, another set of Ashwamedha dinars were issued by Kumara Gupta I (r. 415-455 C.E.) in another context. This paper looks into the differences between the two coin types and the probable circumstances behind both issues

Recent Researches in Epigraphy & Numismatics, 2018

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (c. 1671-1748) was a pedigreed Mughal statesman who was an important sta... more Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (c. 1671-1748) was a pedigreed Mughal statesman who was an important stakeholder in later Mughal court politics with a family base in Mughal Deccan from the reign of Aurangzeb. In 1719-20, he was called to the imperial court by Emperor Muhammad Shah to take up the post of Vazir or Prime Minister. However, the corrupt atmosphere at Shahjahanabad with its debauched court etiquette did not suit the Nizam who turned back to Mughal Deccan in October 1724 to take up the viceroy’s post battling the newly appointed court favourite, Mubariz Khan at the Battle of Shakharkheda. Post 1724, the Nizam-ul-Mulk largely stayed in Mughal Deccan improvising its administration and protecting it from the Marathas till the end of his life. The historiography of Mughal historians have long held that the Nizam-ul-Mulk declared himself ‘independent’. The paper looks at the Nizam’s seals and other important epigraphic remains to disprove this long-held theory.

Rajapur, a trading town in coastal Konkan, was a trading outpost of great importance. It became a... more Rajapur, a trading town in coastal Konkan, was a trading outpost of great importance. It became a point of contention between the Mughals and the Marathas at the end of the seventeenth century earning the Islamic moniker, Islam Bandar. This paper surveys the mint town's flip-flop between the two names as reflected on Mughal coins issued in the period of Aurangzeb and Muhammad Shah, a Later Mughal Emperor.

Mughal Mints have been studied for over a century and half with initial studies focussing on thei... more Mughal Mints have been studied for over a century and half with initial studies focussing on their actual geographic locations, Persianate names, addition of 'new' mints to an ever growing list of mint towns, etc.
Mughal mint towns have never been formally classified on the basis of their output due to poor access to hoards and museum collections in independent India. However, this paper attempts to look at classifying Mughal mint towns on the basis of their output during various reigns in terms of continuity or cessation of activities and relative number of specimens in museums and numismatic trade.

Akbar established the Illahi Era as a part of his eclectic religious order, Din-e-Illahi at the b... more Akbar established the Illahi Era as a part of his eclectic religious order, Din-e-Illahi at the beginning of the thirtieth year of his reign in 1584 based on a Solar Calendar complete with Persian months as a marker of his reign. The Illahi era was also adopted on his coins with the date depicted on Month and the Year of the Illahi calendar.
The same system was continued in the reign of his son and successor Jahangir (c.1605-1627) without much compunction or religious scruples. However, Jahangir’s successor, Shah Jahan pushed for a more ardent religious course and banned the use of the Illahi Era substituting it with the Islamic Lunar Calendar beginning with the Prophet’s flight from Mecca to Medina in 622 A.D. The Hijri Era was adopted to placate the orthodox Ulema who denounced the use of the Solar Calendars as unIslamic and thus the coins of Shah Jahan’s reign were also dated in Hijri Era.
However, Shah Jahan’s reign also saw the survival of the use of the Illahi Era ‘in one or two outlying places, though the practical use of a calendar of solar months led to their continued use (but not invariably) for fiscal purposes.’
This Paper has attempted to study the coins of Shah Jahan in respect to the existence of Illahi dates and months on the coins of various mints of which Thatta seems to stand out with the maximum number of extant samples and also a wide range of dates stretching beyond the cutoff year of Regnal Year 7 in case of other mints. The Paper looks at the probable reasons for the survival of this anomalous situation of Shah Jahan’s coinage from this important mint and tries to connect the dots to Akbar’s reign itself.

A discussion about the possibility of a fake tetradrachm of Seleucid origin in the National Museu... more A discussion about the possibility of a fake tetradrachm of Seleucid origin in the National Museum based on its comparison with other similar coins

Abstract of the Paper The second half of the eighteenth century was a period of great intellectua... more Abstract of the Paper
The second half of the eighteenth century was a period of great intellectual ferment in Europe as it heralded the ‘Age of Revolutions’ in the political and economic spheres by a focus on improvement in all aspects of life by scientific-minded individuals who were able to take the contemporary society and the trading community into confidence. The Industrial Revolution led to a new socio-economic order centered upon smaller industrial towns of South England like Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds and Manchester.
The establishment of industries led to the creation of a wage-oriented class of workers who were to be paid in coins of base metals especially copper or bronze. Thus, one of the most important ingredients of the Industrial Revolution was the creation of a new series of base metal currency for paying the mill workers and higher currency for the emerging bourgeoisie; the shove for this currency strangely did not come from the Royal Mint in London but was pioneered by Matthew Boulton (c.1728-1809), a metal industry pioneer from Birmingham who created a steam engine press for creating mechanized minted coins in collaboration with James Watt, the Scottish pioneer of steam engines to create the Soho Mint which created world class coins and mints.
The Soho Mint under Boulton’s leadership also began to export mechanized mints to various countries like Russia, Mexico, etc. and also helped the Royal Mint in London refurbish its technology. The Soho Mint briefly established contact with the EIC in London and minted a copper series for circulation on the Bombay Island between 1791 and 1794. The East India Company sought Boulton’s help to modernize its mints at three power centres of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. This paper traces the History of the ‘new’ Bombay Mint which replaced the old Bombay Mint in 1830 and was set up with the help of Boulton & Watt Company to create modern machine-struck coins for the Island and its dependent regions of the Bombay Presidency.

Akbar established the Illahi Era as a part of his eclectic religious order Din-e-Illahi as an exe... more Akbar established the Illahi Era as a part of his eclectic religious order Din-e-Illahi as an exercise towards syncretism naming the era of his reign as Illahi as opposed to the self-laudatory ‘Akbari’ or ‘Jalali’ dedicating it to the Almighty. Thus, the Illahi Year commenced with the first month of Farwardin on March 21 according to the Gregorian calendar along with the Nauroz celebrations in a pompous fashion. This was denounced by the orthodox Ulema as a heretical act of the emperor as evidenced by Badauni’s testimony in his work which describes the faith as Tauḥíd-i-Iláhí in his work, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh .
Jahangir relinquished the Illahi era in favour of the Hijri era as the official calendar but reinstated it as a special connotation for his regnal year along with the term Julus. He also relished the celebration of the Naurūz with great pomp and celebration thus displaying an ambivalent attitude to the whole issue. Shahjahan however, abolished the use of the Illahi Year in all his official communications in favour of the Hijri Era to win the approbation of the Ulema and records of his reign according to all official chroniclers from his reign to Aurangzeb’s reign.
The continuation of using Illahi months on the coinage of Shah Jahan along with the use of the Solar Calendar to record the regnal years of his initial reign has been the subject of an intensive study by Prof. H. S. Hodivala, the savant of Mughal Numismatics in his compilation of articles on Mughal coinage. However, the venerable scholar did not chart the various mints issuing this coinage with details of dates and months from surviving specimens of these coins in the collections of various museums. The current study is an attempt to map the various mints which issued the Illahi coinage with the listing of various coin specimens in published catalogues of museums.

DNA Newspaper, 2017

A survey of the monetary history of the Indian subcontinent published in the newspaper DNA to fam... more A survey of the monetary history of the Indian subcontinent published in the newspaper DNA to familiarize the lay audience about Indian monetary traditions

Coin of the Month, FINT, 2022

The article is on a fractional tanka an unpublished type from the Bengal Sultanate period in the ... more The article is on a fractional tanka an unpublished type from the Bengal Sultanate period in the FINT Collection at the Department of Islamic Numismatics (FINT) at the University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany. The article was published on the website of the FINT as 'COIN OF THE MONTH' in March 2022.

The Journal of Numismatic Society of India, 2020

This paper looks at the contribution of Maj. Gen. Forbes (1796-1855) to the modernization of the ... more This paper looks at the contribution of Maj. Gen. Forbes (1796-1855) to the modernization of the Kolkata Mint and other highlights of an illustrious career in the Bengal Engineers of the East India Company. It also highlights the commemoration of Forbes by the installation of his statue and a plaque in his name installed by Forbes' well-wishers in his memory at the St. Paul’s Cathedral, Kolkata. The Victorian era Gothic styled cathedral was incidentally created by Forbes who served as its architect thus showing his multihued achievements throughout his career in colonial era Bengal.

History of Ancient India: Volume VII: Economy, Agriculture, Crafts & Trade ed. Dilip Chakravarti, 2019

Ancient Indian Coinage evolved over a long period of nearly two millennia from the sixth century ... more Ancient Indian Coinage evolved over a long period of nearly two millennia from the sixth century before the Common Era till the twelfth century of the Common Era before the implementation of Indo-Islamic coinages by the Indo-Islamic kingdoms of the region.
During this long period, its minting techniques underwent a sea of change from an indigenous style called Punch-marked technique evolved in the pre-Buddhist and Mauryan era to Greek inspired Die-striking method along with Casting of certain series probably inspired by Chinese coinage. This paper looks at prominent coinages issued majorly during this long period across the Indian sub-continent.

The Numismatic Chronicle, 2020

In 1853 E.W. West found five copper coins with Arabic legends in the ancient cave complex of Kanh... more In 1853 E.W. West found five copper coins with Arabic legends in the ancient cave complex of Kanheri Caves in Western India. The area was sprinkled with other artefacts which had clear Buddhist iconography. Though ignorant of Arabic script, West faithfully published detailed drawings of the five copper coins. He deposited them at the Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society (BBRAS) (currently the Asiatic Society of Mumbai). The coins were published by O. Codrington in an article on Indian Sultanate coins. The importance of finding fifteenthcentury Sultanate coins in a ritualistic context of a Buddhist monastery, however, was lost on these early researchers. By revisiting West's findings, the present article highlights the significance of these finds of Sultanate-era coins in extending the lifespan of Buddhist practices in the Indian continent to the second half of the fifteenth century.

Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society JONS, 2011

The Gupta dynasty was an imperial dynasty which ruled Northern India from the fourth to the 6th c... more The Gupta dynasty was an imperial dynasty which ruled Northern India from the fourth to the 6th century. Its domains were built on the firm shoulders of Samudra Gupta (r. 335-375 C.E.), the second Gupta ruler who laid the foundations of a vast empire by conducting an Ashwamedha Yagna, defeating or humbling most North Indian rulers. Samudra Gupta issued a set of gold dinars commemorating his achievement.
Similarly, another set of Ashwamedha dinars were issued by Kumara Gupta I (r. 415-455 C.E.) in another context. This paper looks into the differences between the two coin types and the probable circumstances behind both issues

Recent Researches in Epigraphy & Numismatics, 2018

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (c. 1671-1748) was a pedigreed Mughal statesman who was an important sta... more Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (c. 1671-1748) was a pedigreed Mughal statesman who was an important stakeholder in later Mughal court politics with a family base in Mughal Deccan from the reign of Aurangzeb. In 1719-20, he was called to the imperial court by Emperor Muhammad Shah to take up the post of Vazir or Prime Minister. However, the corrupt atmosphere at Shahjahanabad with its debauched court etiquette did not suit the Nizam who turned back to Mughal Deccan in October 1724 to take up the viceroy’s post battling the newly appointed court favourite, Mubariz Khan at the Battle of Shakharkheda. Post 1724, the Nizam-ul-Mulk largely stayed in Mughal Deccan improvising its administration and protecting it from the Marathas till the end of his life. The historiography of Mughal historians have long held that the Nizam-ul-Mulk declared himself ‘independent’. The paper looks at the Nizam’s seals and other important epigraphic remains to disprove this long-held theory.

Rajapur, a trading town in coastal Konkan, was a trading outpost of great importance. It became a... more Rajapur, a trading town in coastal Konkan, was a trading outpost of great importance. It became a point of contention between the Mughals and the Marathas at the end of the seventeenth century earning the Islamic moniker, Islam Bandar. This paper surveys the mint town's flip-flop between the two names as reflected on Mughal coins issued in the period of Aurangzeb and Muhammad Shah, a Later Mughal Emperor.

Mughal Mints have been studied for over a century and half with initial studies focussing on thei... more Mughal Mints have been studied for over a century and half with initial studies focussing on their actual geographic locations, Persianate names, addition of 'new' mints to an ever growing list of mint towns, etc.
Mughal mint towns have never been formally classified on the basis of their output due to poor access to hoards and museum collections in independent India. However, this paper attempts to look at classifying Mughal mint towns on the basis of their output during various reigns in terms of continuity or cessation of activities and relative number of specimens in museums and numismatic trade.

Akbar established the Illahi Era as a part of his eclectic religious order, Din-e-Illahi at the b... more Akbar established the Illahi Era as a part of his eclectic religious order, Din-e-Illahi at the beginning of the thirtieth year of his reign in 1584 based on a Solar Calendar complete with Persian months as a marker of his reign. The Illahi era was also adopted on his coins with the date depicted on Month and the Year of the Illahi calendar.
The same system was continued in the reign of his son and successor Jahangir (c.1605-1627) without much compunction or religious scruples. However, Jahangir’s successor, Shah Jahan pushed for a more ardent religious course and banned the use of the Illahi Era substituting it with the Islamic Lunar Calendar beginning with the Prophet’s flight from Mecca to Medina in 622 A.D. The Hijri Era was adopted to placate the orthodox Ulema who denounced the use of the Solar Calendars as unIslamic and thus the coins of Shah Jahan’s reign were also dated in Hijri Era.
However, Shah Jahan’s reign also saw the survival of the use of the Illahi Era ‘in one or two outlying places, though the practical use of a calendar of solar months led to their continued use (but not invariably) for fiscal purposes.’
This Paper has attempted to study the coins of Shah Jahan in respect to the existence of Illahi dates and months on the coins of various mints of which Thatta seems to stand out with the maximum number of extant samples and also a wide range of dates stretching beyond the cutoff year of Regnal Year 7 in case of other mints. The Paper looks at the probable reasons for the survival of this anomalous situation of Shah Jahan’s coinage from this important mint and tries to connect the dots to Akbar’s reign itself.

A discussion about the possibility of a fake tetradrachm of Seleucid origin in the National Museu... more A discussion about the possibility of a fake tetradrachm of Seleucid origin in the National Museum based on its comparison with other similar coins

Abstract of the Paper The second half of the eighteenth century was a period of great intellectua... more Abstract of the Paper
The second half of the eighteenth century was a period of great intellectual ferment in Europe as it heralded the ‘Age of Revolutions’ in the political and economic spheres by a focus on improvement in all aspects of life by scientific-minded individuals who were able to take the contemporary society and the trading community into confidence. The Industrial Revolution led to a new socio-economic order centered upon smaller industrial towns of South England like Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds and Manchester.
The establishment of industries led to the creation of a wage-oriented class of workers who were to be paid in coins of base metals especially copper or bronze. Thus, one of the most important ingredients of the Industrial Revolution was the creation of a new series of base metal currency for paying the mill workers and higher currency for the emerging bourgeoisie; the shove for this currency strangely did not come from the Royal Mint in London but was pioneered by Matthew Boulton (c.1728-1809), a metal industry pioneer from Birmingham who created a steam engine press for creating mechanized minted coins in collaboration with James Watt, the Scottish pioneer of steam engines to create the Soho Mint which created world class coins and mints.
The Soho Mint under Boulton’s leadership also began to export mechanized mints to various countries like Russia, Mexico, etc. and also helped the Royal Mint in London refurbish its technology. The Soho Mint briefly established contact with the EIC in London and minted a copper series for circulation on the Bombay Island between 1791 and 1794. The East India Company sought Boulton’s help to modernize its mints at three power centres of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. This paper traces the History of the ‘new’ Bombay Mint which replaced the old Bombay Mint in 1830 and was set up with the help of Boulton & Watt Company to create modern machine-struck coins for the Island and its dependent regions of the Bombay Presidency.

Akbar established the Illahi Era as a part of his eclectic religious order Din-e-Illahi as an exe... more Akbar established the Illahi Era as a part of his eclectic religious order Din-e-Illahi as an exercise towards syncretism naming the era of his reign as Illahi as opposed to the self-laudatory ‘Akbari’ or ‘Jalali’ dedicating it to the Almighty. Thus, the Illahi Year commenced with the first month of Farwardin on March 21 according to the Gregorian calendar along with the Nauroz celebrations in a pompous fashion. This was denounced by the orthodox Ulema as a heretical act of the emperor as evidenced by Badauni’s testimony in his work which describes the faith as Tauḥíd-i-Iláhí in his work, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh .
Jahangir relinquished the Illahi era in favour of the Hijri era as the official calendar but reinstated it as a special connotation for his regnal year along with the term Julus. He also relished the celebration of the Naurūz with great pomp and celebration thus displaying an ambivalent attitude to the whole issue. Shahjahan however, abolished the use of the Illahi Year in all his official communications in favour of the Hijri Era to win the approbation of the Ulema and records of his reign according to all official chroniclers from his reign to Aurangzeb’s reign.
The continuation of using Illahi months on the coinage of Shah Jahan along with the use of the Solar Calendar to record the regnal years of his initial reign has been the subject of an intensive study by Prof. H. S. Hodivala, the savant of Mughal Numismatics in his compilation of articles on Mughal coinage. However, the venerable scholar did not chart the various mints issuing this coinage with details of dates and months from surviving specimens of these coins in the collections of various museums. The current study is an attempt to map the various mints which issued the Illahi coinage with the listing of various coin specimens in published catalogues of museums.