Paloma Braza | Universidad de Cadiz (original) (raw)

Papers by Paloma Braza

Research paper thumbnail of Anger control and impulsivity and its relationship with androgen levels in 9-year-old boys and girls

Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 1970

Research paper thumbnail of Relación entre la flexibilidal comportemental de niños en el periodo de educación infantil y su adaptación social posterior

Infancia Y Aprendizaje, 2002

Research paper thumbnail of Sexual differences in pre-school children behaviour

Ecologie Ethologie Humaines, 1989

Research paper thumbnail of Relación entre la flexibilidad comportamental de niños en el periodo de educación infantil y su adaptación social posterior Behavioural flexibility during early childhood education and future social adaptation

Infancia Y Aprendizaje, Oct 31, 2002

Este estudio trata de explorar si la flexibilidad de comportamiento de los niños en el período de... more Este estudio trata de explorar si la flexibilidad de comportamiento de los niños en el período de Educación Infantil podría informar acerca de su futura adaptación social. De los 69 sujetos de la muestra (52 niñas y 17 niños) se obtuvo, a los 4 y 5 años de edad, una medida de su flexibilidad comportamental a través de un índice propuesto por los autores en trabajos previos (IF), y cuatro años después se evaluaron distintos aspectos de su adaptación a través del Test Autoevaluativo Multifactorial de Adaptación Infantil (T.A.M.A.I.). Los resultados sugieren que el IF podría servir como posible instrumento de diagnóstico de adaptación social posterior. Esta relación se ve validada por las correlaciones obtenidas entre el Índice de Flexibilidad y algunos factores personales y familiares del T.A.M.A.I. Estos resultados se discuten en el marco de las aportaciones que la investigación ha proporcionado al conocimiento del desarrollo social infantil. Palabras clave: Flexibilidad de comportamiento, adaptación social, factores familiares y personales, niños, diagnóstico precoz.

Research paper thumbnail of Anger control and impulsivity and its relationship with androgen levels in 9-year-old boys and girls

Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 2009

Research paper thumbnail of Implicación en los comportamientos de agonismo y ajuste social al grupo de iguales en niños de cuatro y cinco años

Psicothema

La relación entre la implicación en situaciones de agonismo y el ajuste social en niños preescola... more La relación entre la implicación en situaciones de agonismo y el ajuste social en niños preescolares parece confusa en la literatura sobre el tema (ver Braza, 1993); así, mientras que algunos niños con niveles altos de agonismo tienen problemas de ajuste en el grupo de iguales (Coie y Dodgeniños que también se implican a menudo en estas situaciones sí son capaces de desarrollar buenas capacidades interpersonales e integrarse en sus grupos de iguales (Cairns, Cairns, Neckerman, Gest y Gariepy, 1988). Además, diversos estudios realizados en la etapa preescolar, como el de o el de Vaughn y Martino (1988), encontraron una relación positiva entre las actividades agonísticas y el ajuste social.

Research paper thumbnail of Aproximación al estudio de las actitudes y estrategias de pensamiento social y su relación con los comportamientos disruptivos en el aula en la educación secundaria

Una de las principales preocupaciones del profesorado de secundaria son las, cada vez más frecuen... more Una de las principales preocupaciones del profesorado de secundaria son las, cada vez más frecuentes, relaciones conflictivas que mantienen con algunos alumnos y que dificultan el normal desarrollo de las clases. El presente estudio persigue analizar qué componentes de la competencia social se relacionan con la presencia de comportamientos disruptivos en una muestra de 348 alumnos de un centro de secundaria. En el primer ciclo de ESO, los chicos disruptivos obtuvieron puntuaciones más altas en liderazgo prosocial, en agresividad y terquedad, y en impulsividad; las chicas de este ciclo obtuvieron puntuaciones más bajas en sensibilidad social. En el segundo ciclo de ESO, entre los chicos no se detectaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los sujetos disruptivos y los no disruptivos; entre las chicas, las calificadas como disruptivas obtuvieron puntuaciones más bajas en ayuda y colaboración y conformidad con lo que es socialmente correcto, y más altas en independencia f...

Research paper thumbnail of The index of amplitude of behavior as a measuring instrument of social ability in preschool children

Psicothema

El índice de amplitud de comportamiento como instrumento de medida de la habilidad social en niño... more El índice de amplitud de comportamiento como instrumento de medida de la habilidad social en niños preescolares. Con el objeto de evaluar la validez del Indice de Amplitud de Comportamiento (IAB) como un instrumento de medida de la habilidad social de niños preescolares, se estudió la variación de dicho índice durante un año académico en un colegio andaluz. Para ello, se observó el comportamiento social de 31 niños (de 5 años de edad) en el recreo y se calculó cronológicamente durante el período de estudio una medida de IAB para cada sujeto. De acuerdo con los datos obtenidos, 300 segundos de observación se considera un período de tiempo adecuado para una estimación fiable del IAB de un sujeto. Se detectó un ajuste de los valores del IAB de cada individuo a la media del IAB de todos los individuos del grupo; lo que sugiere que el IAB puede ser además considerado como una herramienta útil para explorar la influencia de los grupos de pares en la socialización.

Research paper thumbnail of Androginia, amplitud de comportamiento y ajuste social en niños y niñas de educación infantil

Keeping in mind that individuals with a wider range of behaviors from which to draw are better in... more Keeping in mind that individuals with a wider range of behaviors from which to draw are better in their social adjustment, and considering that androgynous behavior seems to be an effective predictor of this adjustment in adults, in this study we evaluated if boys and girls 5 year-old with wider range of behaviors, are also androgynous. During the daily free-play situation at school, we registered the behavior of the children. An Index of Amplitude of Behavior (IAC) was assigned to individuals according to 54 social behavioral patterns. The results show that gender differences don´t exist in the behavior width. The masculine behaviors are those that contribute more to the Index of Amplitude of Behaviors; therefore, among those subjects with high IAC are the girls, more than the boys that besides the behaviors characteristic of their femenine gender, are implied with more frequency in typical behaviors of the other gender

Research paper thumbnail of Do Aggression and Withdrawal Act as Links Between Early Peer Rejection by Same-Sex Peers and Later Risk Behaviors? A Longitudinal Study Across the 5-9-YEAR-OLD Period, Considering Sex Differences

Considering the relevance of peer relationships in childhood development, a large body of longitu... more Considering the relevance of peer relationships in childhood development, a large body of longitudinal studies has established the predictive contribution of aggression and peer rejection to later dysfunction. However, few researchers have considered rejection by same-sex peers while describing the mechanism through which behavior and early peer experiences may result in future psychological maladjustment, including aggression. Nevertheless, sex segregation during childhood has been referred to as one of the most persistent and reliable developmental phenomena. We test two separate models establishing that, regardless of the previous level of aggression at age 5, peer rejection by

Research paper thumbnail of Developmental trajectories of aggressive behavior in children from ages 8 to 10: The role of sex and hormones

American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, Jan 19, 2015

This study explored the developmental trajectory of aggressive behavior from age 8 to age 10 in s... more This study explored the developmental trajectory of aggressive behavior from age 8 to age 10 in school-aged children, taking into account possible sex differences, as well as the involvement of certain hormones. Participants were 90 children (49 boys and 41 girls) from four schools. At the beginning of the study, the children were 8-year old and were in 3rd grade of primary school. The second data collection phase was carried out two years later (at age 10) when the children were in 5th grade (primary). Their aggressive behavior was measured by the Direct and Indirect Aggression Scale, an instrument which uses peer rating. Hormone levels, testosterone, cortisol and estradiol were analyzed using an enzymoimmunoassay technique in saliva samples. The results revealed a difference in aggressive behavior between the ages of 8 and 10, in boys only, who were found to be more aggressive at age 10. A regression analysis revealed that cortisol and estradiol contributed to explaining the chang...

Research paper thumbnail of Relación entre la flexibilidad comportamental de niños en el periodo de educación infantil y su adaptación social posterior

Infancia y Aprendizaje, 2002

Este estudio trata de explorar si la flexibilidad de comportamiento de los niños en el período de... more Este estudio trata de explorar si la flexibilidad de comportamiento de los niños en el período de Educación Infantil podría informar acerca de su futura adaptación social. De los 69 sujetos de la muestra (52 niñas y 17 niños) se obtuvo, a los 4 y 5 años de edad, una medida de su flexibilidad comportamental a través de un índice propuesto por los autores en trabajos previos (IF), y cuatro años después se evaluaron distintos aspectos de su adaptación a través del Test Autoevaluativo Multifactorial de Adaptación Infantil (T.A.M.A.I.). Los resultados sugieren que el IF podría servir como posible instrumento de diagnóstico de adaptación social posterior. Esta relación se ve validada por las correlaciones obtenidas entre el Índice de Flexibilidad y algunos factores personales y familiares del T.A.M.A.I. Estos resultados se discuten en el marco de las aportaciones que la investigación ha proporcionado al conocimiento del desarrollo social infantil. Palabras clave: Flexibilidad de comportamiento, adaptación social, factores familiares y personales, niños, diagnóstico precoz.

Research paper thumbnail of Androgen levels and anger and impulsivity measures as predictors of physical, verbal and indirect aggression in boys and girls

Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2011

Previous studies indicate that androgen levels and certain psychological characteristics such as ... more Previous studies indicate that androgen levels and certain psychological characteristics such as anger and impulsivity are related to the development and maintenance of aggression. Further studies are required to analyze the potential predictor role of the interaction of said factors on aggressive behavior. 90 nine-year-old children (44 boys and 46 girls) were assessed in relation to their levels of physical, verbal and indirect aggression, using a peer-rating technique. Testosterone and androstenedione levels were analyzed using an enzymoimmunoassay technique in saliva samples. Anger (state and trait) and anger control were measured using the STAXI-NA, and impulsivity was measured through the MFF-20. A General Linear Model revealed that sex was the best predictor for aggression measures, with boys scoring higher than girls in physical, verbal and indirect aggression; after sex, testosterone was found to be the best predictor (in a positive sense) of all three types of aggressive behavior studied. In addition to observing a main effect of androstenedione on physical and verbal aggression, a 'state anger *androstenedione' interaction was found to predict these types of aggression, with androstenedione acting as a moderator (inhibitor) of the effects of anger on these behaviors; also, a 'state anger * testosterone' interaction was found to predict verbal aggression. The results support the idea that, after sex, androgens constitute a biological marker to be taken into consideration in

Research paper thumbnail of Empathy, estradiol and androgen levels in 9-year-old children

Personality and Individual Differences, 2013

Research paper thumbnail of Social success, leadership and social patterns in preschool children

Ethology and Sociobiology, 1989

Research paper thumbnail of Girls' and Boys' Choices of Peer Behavioral Characteristics at Age Five

Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2012

We analyzed age differences in the behavioral profiles of the girls and boys chosen as play partn... more We analyzed age differences in the behavioral profiles of the girls and boys chosen as play partners by same-and cross-sex peers at age 5 and the influence of these choices on subsequent behavior at 9 in a sample of 107 Spanish children. Girls chose girls who had an interest in resources and affective leadership, whereas boys chose boys interested in sport and rejected those preferring role-taking play. Both girls and boys who were preferred by boys at 5 showed low levels of maladaptive behaviors. We suggest that children's selection of the type of play and behavior of their same-sex peers could be considered a relevant mechanism for explaining the adaptive role of sex segregation during childhood.

Research paper thumbnail of Measuring the Social Ability of Preschool Children

Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 1993

Research paper thumbnail of Behavioral Profiles of Different Types of Social Status in Preschool Children: An Observational Approach

Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2007

Research paper thumbnail of Aggression and prosocial behaviors in social conflicts mediating the influence of cold social intelligence and affective empathy on children's social preference

Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2014

Aggression and prosocial behaviors in social conflicts mediating the influence of cold social int... more Aggression and prosocial behaviors in social conflicts mediating the influence of cold social intelligence and affective empathy on children's social preference. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology.

Research paper thumbnail of Development of Sex Differences in Preschool Children: Social Behavior During an Academic Year

Psychological Reports, 1997

Sex differences in activities of preschoolers were assessed during free-play tune from observatio... more Sex differences in activities of preschoolers were assessed during free-play tune from observation of the behavior of 31 children (23 girls, 8 boys; M = 5 yr.). These differences were noted for the time girls and boys spent in the activities considered, boys spending more time in ...

Research paper thumbnail of Anger control and impulsivity and its relationship with androgen levels in 9-year-old boys and girls

Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 1970

Research paper thumbnail of Relación entre la flexibilidal comportemental de niños en el periodo de educación infantil y su adaptación social posterior

Infancia Y Aprendizaje, 2002

Research paper thumbnail of Sexual differences in pre-school children behaviour

Ecologie Ethologie Humaines, 1989

Research paper thumbnail of Relación entre la flexibilidad comportamental de niños en el periodo de educación infantil y su adaptación social posterior Behavioural flexibility during early childhood education and future social adaptation

Infancia Y Aprendizaje, Oct 31, 2002

Este estudio trata de explorar si la flexibilidad de comportamiento de los niños en el período de... more Este estudio trata de explorar si la flexibilidad de comportamiento de los niños en el período de Educación Infantil podría informar acerca de su futura adaptación social. De los 69 sujetos de la muestra (52 niñas y 17 niños) se obtuvo, a los 4 y 5 años de edad, una medida de su flexibilidad comportamental a través de un índice propuesto por los autores en trabajos previos (IF), y cuatro años después se evaluaron distintos aspectos de su adaptación a través del Test Autoevaluativo Multifactorial de Adaptación Infantil (T.A.M.A.I.). Los resultados sugieren que el IF podría servir como posible instrumento de diagnóstico de adaptación social posterior. Esta relación se ve validada por las correlaciones obtenidas entre el Índice de Flexibilidad y algunos factores personales y familiares del T.A.M.A.I. Estos resultados se discuten en el marco de las aportaciones que la investigación ha proporcionado al conocimiento del desarrollo social infantil. Palabras clave: Flexibilidad de comportamiento, adaptación social, factores familiares y personales, niños, diagnóstico precoz.

Research paper thumbnail of Anger control and impulsivity and its relationship with androgen levels in 9-year-old boys and girls

Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 2009

Research paper thumbnail of Implicación en los comportamientos de agonismo y ajuste social al grupo de iguales en niños de cuatro y cinco años

Psicothema

La relación entre la implicación en situaciones de agonismo y el ajuste social en niños preescola... more La relación entre la implicación en situaciones de agonismo y el ajuste social en niños preescolares parece confusa en la literatura sobre el tema (ver Braza, 1993); así, mientras que algunos niños con niveles altos de agonismo tienen problemas de ajuste en el grupo de iguales (Coie y Dodgeniños que también se implican a menudo en estas situaciones sí son capaces de desarrollar buenas capacidades interpersonales e integrarse en sus grupos de iguales (Cairns, Cairns, Neckerman, Gest y Gariepy, 1988). Además, diversos estudios realizados en la etapa preescolar, como el de o el de Vaughn y Martino (1988), encontraron una relación positiva entre las actividades agonísticas y el ajuste social.

Research paper thumbnail of Aproximación al estudio de las actitudes y estrategias de pensamiento social y su relación con los comportamientos disruptivos en el aula en la educación secundaria

Una de las principales preocupaciones del profesorado de secundaria son las, cada vez más frecuen... more Una de las principales preocupaciones del profesorado de secundaria son las, cada vez más frecuentes, relaciones conflictivas que mantienen con algunos alumnos y que dificultan el normal desarrollo de las clases. El presente estudio persigue analizar qué componentes de la competencia social se relacionan con la presencia de comportamientos disruptivos en una muestra de 348 alumnos de un centro de secundaria. En el primer ciclo de ESO, los chicos disruptivos obtuvieron puntuaciones más altas en liderazgo prosocial, en agresividad y terquedad, y en impulsividad; las chicas de este ciclo obtuvieron puntuaciones más bajas en sensibilidad social. En el segundo ciclo de ESO, entre los chicos no se detectaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los sujetos disruptivos y los no disruptivos; entre las chicas, las calificadas como disruptivas obtuvieron puntuaciones más bajas en ayuda y colaboración y conformidad con lo que es socialmente correcto, y más altas en independencia f...

Research paper thumbnail of The index of amplitude of behavior as a measuring instrument of social ability in preschool children

Psicothema

El índice de amplitud de comportamiento como instrumento de medida de la habilidad social en niño... more El índice de amplitud de comportamiento como instrumento de medida de la habilidad social en niños preescolares. Con el objeto de evaluar la validez del Indice de Amplitud de Comportamiento (IAB) como un instrumento de medida de la habilidad social de niños preescolares, se estudió la variación de dicho índice durante un año académico en un colegio andaluz. Para ello, se observó el comportamiento social de 31 niños (de 5 años de edad) en el recreo y se calculó cronológicamente durante el período de estudio una medida de IAB para cada sujeto. De acuerdo con los datos obtenidos, 300 segundos de observación se considera un período de tiempo adecuado para una estimación fiable del IAB de un sujeto. Se detectó un ajuste de los valores del IAB de cada individuo a la media del IAB de todos los individuos del grupo; lo que sugiere que el IAB puede ser además considerado como una herramienta útil para explorar la influencia de los grupos de pares en la socialización.

Research paper thumbnail of Androginia, amplitud de comportamiento y ajuste social en niños y niñas de educación infantil

Keeping in mind that individuals with a wider range of behaviors from which to draw are better in... more Keeping in mind that individuals with a wider range of behaviors from which to draw are better in their social adjustment, and considering that androgynous behavior seems to be an effective predictor of this adjustment in adults, in this study we evaluated if boys and girls 5 year-old with wider range of behaviors, are also androgynous. During the daily free-play situation at school, we registered the behavior of the children. An Index of Amplitude of Behavior (IAC) was assigned to individuals according to 54 social behavioral patterns. The results show that gender differences don´t exist in the behavior width. The masculine behaviors are those that contribute more to the Index of Amplitude of Behaviors; therefore, among those subjects with high IAC are the girls, more than the boys that besides the behaviors characteristic of their femenine gender, are implied with more frequency in typical behaviors of the other gender

Research paper thumbnail of Do Aggression and Withdrawal Act as Links Between Early Peer Rejection by Same-Sex Peers and Later Risk Behaviors? A Longitudinal Study Across the 5-9-YEAR-OLD Period, Considering Sex Differences

Considering the relevance of peer relationships in childhood development, a large body of longitu... more Considering the relevance of peer relationships in childhood development, a large body of longitudinal studies has established the predictive contribution of aggression and peer rejection to later dysfunction. However, few researchers have considered rejection by same-sex peers while describing the mechanism through which behavior and early peer experiences may result in future psychological maladjustment, including aggression. Nevertheless, sex segregation during childhood has been referred to as one of the most persistent and reliable developmental phenomena. We test two separate models establishing that, regardless of the previous level of aggression at age 5, peer rejection by

Research paper thumbnail of Developmental trajectories of aggressive behavior in children from ages 8 to 10: The role of sex and hormones

American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, Jan 19, 2015

This study explored the developmental trajectory of aggressive behavior from age 8 to age 10 in s... more This study explored the developmental trajectory of aggressive behavior from age 8 to age 10 in school-aged children, taking into account possible sex differences, as well as the involvement of certain hormones. Participants were 90 children (49 boys and 41 girls) from four schools. At the beginning of the study, the children were 8-year old and were in 3rd grade of primary school. The second data collection phase was carried out two years later (at age 10) when the children were in 5th grade (primary). Their aggressive behavior was measured by the Direct and Indirect Aggression Scale, an instrument which uses peer rating. Hormone levels, testosterone, cortisol and estradiol were analyzed using an enzymoimmunoassay technique in saliva samples. The results revealed a difference in aggressive behavior between the ages of 8 and 10, in boys only, who were found to be more aggressive at age 10. A regression analysis revealed that cortisol and estradiol contributed to explaining the chang...

Research paper thumbnail of Relación entre la flexibilidad comportamental de niños en el periodo de educación infantil y su adaptación social posterior

Infancia y Aprendizaje, 2002

Este estudio trata de explorar si la flexibilidad de comportamiento de los niños en el período de... more Este estudio trata de explorar si la flexibilidad de comportamiento de los niños en el período de Educación Infantil podría informar acerca de su futura adaptación social. De los 69 sujetos de la muestra (52 niñas y 17 niños) se obtuvo, a los 4 y 5 años de edad, una medida de su flexibilidad comportamental a través de un índice propuesto por los autores en trabajos previos (IF), y cuatro años después se evaluaron distintos aspectos de su adaptación a través del Test Autoevaluativo Multifactorial de Adaptación Infantil (T.A.M.A.I.). Los resultados sugieren que el IF podría servir como posible instrumento de diagnóstico de adaptación social posterior. Esta relación se ve validada por las correlaciones obtenidas entre el Índice de Flexibilidad y algunos factores personales y familiares del T.A.M.A.I. Estos resultados se discuten en el marco de las aportaciones que la investigación ha proporcionado al conocimiento del desarrollo social infantil. Palabras clave: Flexibilidad de comportamiento, adaptación social, factores familiares y personales, niños, diagnóstico precoz.

Research paper thumbnail of Androgen levels and anger and impulsivity measures as predictors of physical, verbal and indirect aggression in boys and girls

Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2011

Previous studies indicate that androgen levels and certain psychological characteristics such as ... more Previous studies indicate that androgen levels and certain psychological characteristics such as anger and impulsivity are related to the development and maintenance of aggression. Further studies are required to analyze the potential predictor role of the interaction of said factors on aggressive behavior. 90 nine-year-old children (44 boys and 46 girls) were assessed in relation to their levels of physical, verbal and indirect aggression, using a peer-rating technique. Testosterone and androstenedione levels were analyzed using an enzymoimmunoassay technique in saliva samples. Anger (state and trait) and anger control were measured using the STAXI-NA, and impulsivity was measured through the MFF-20. A General Linear Model revealed that sex was the best predictor for aggression measures, with boys scoring higher than girls in physical, verbal and indirect aggression; after sex, testosterone was found to be the best predictor (in a positive sense) of all three types of aggressive behavior studied. In addition to observing a main effect of androstenedione on physical and verbal aggression, a 'state anger *androstenedione' interaction was found to predict these types of aggression, with androstenedione acting as a moderator (inhibitor) of the effects of anger on these behaviors; also, a 'state anger * testosterone' interaction was found to predict verbal aggression. The results support the idea that, after sex, androgens constitute a biological marker to be taken into consideration in

Research paper thumbnail of Empathy, estradiol and androgen levels in 9-year-old children

Personality and Individual Differences, 2013

Research paper thumbnail of Social success, leadership and social patterns in preschool children

Ethology and Sociobiology, 1989

Research paper thumbnail of Girls' and Boys' Choices of Peer Behavioral Characteristics at Age Five

Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2012

We analyzed age differences in the behavioral profiles of the girls and boys chosen as play partn... more We analyzed age differences in the behavioral profiles of the girls and boys chosen as play partners by same-and cross-sex peers at age 5 and the influence of these choices on subsequent behavior at 9 in a sample of 107 Spanish children. Girls chose girls who had an interest in resources and affective leadership, whereas boys chose boys interested in sport and rejected those preferring role-taking play. Both girls and boys who were preferred by boys at 5 showed low levels of maladaptive behaviors. We suggest that children's selection of the type of play and behavior of their same-sex peers could be considered a relevant mechanism for explaining the adaptive role of sex segregation during childhood.

Research paper thumbnail of Measuring the Social Ability of Preschool Children

Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 1993

Research paper thumbnail of Behavioral Profiles of Different Types of Social Status in Preschool Children: An Observational Approach

Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2007

Research paper thumbnail of Aggression and prosocial behaviors in social conflicts mediating the influence of cold social intelligence and affective empathy on children's social preference

Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2014

Aggression and prosocial behaviors in social conflicts mediating the influence of cold social int... more Aggression and prosocial behaviors in social conflicts mediating the influence of cold social intelligence and affective empathy on children's social preference. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology.

Research paper thumbnail of Development of Sex Differences in Preschool Children: Social Behavior During an Academic Year

Psychological Reports, 1997

Sex differences in activities of preschoolers were assessed during free-play tune from observatio... more Sex differences in activities of preschoolers were assessed during free-play tune from observation of the behavior of 31 children (23 girls, 8 boys; M = 5 yr.). These differences were noted for the time girls and boys spent in the activities considered, boys spending more time in ...