Mark Gardiner | University of Lincoln (original) (raw)

Papers by Mark Gardiner

Becoming and Belonging in Ireland AD c.1200-1600, 2018

This paper examines the nature of the built landscape in sixteenth-century Ulster and considers w... more This paper examines the nature of the built landscape in sixteenth-century Ulster and considers why so little of it remains. It is necessary to deploy a range of evidence to try to identify surviving remains. Perhaps the most striking feature about the landscape of Gaelic Ulster was the lack of substantial investment in the construction of physical structures. That included not only houses, other buildings and fields, but also the construction of material boundaries of all sorts, including those of the farms and townlands. As a results it is difficult to find remains because human intervention was comparatively light.

Merchants, Measures and Money Understanding Technologies of Early Trade in a Comparative Perspective, 2021

The nature and operation of medieval trade in Iceland over seven centuries is examined in this pa... more The nature and operation of medieval trade in Iceland over seven centuries is examined in this paper. Three phases of trade can be distinguished. The first, from c. 900 was marked by the growing dominance of Nor- wegian traders who came to dominate overseas commerce and culminated with the union with Norway. The second from c. 1250 is marked by the growing importance of dried cod (stockfish) which superseded coarse cloth (vaðmál) as the major export from Iceland. The third phase in the 15th and 16th centuries was marked by the capture of the stockfish trade by the English and German merchants. The modest level of trade prevented the emergence of a merchant class in Iceland, but the demand for vaðmál and stockfish had a profound effect on Icelandic society and in the measures of value used. Coins were not employed, and trade was carried out by barter. The units for the measurement of value were successively silver, cloth and then stockfish. As the items of trade changed, so did the units of value.

Ulster Folklife, 2015

Transhumance, or booleyig as it is widely termed in Ireland, is often considered as a particular ... more Transhumance, or booleyig as it is widely termed in Ireland, is often considered as a particular folk practice, rather than a common response to the utilization of larger areas of poor-quality land. It is a usage which persisted over many centuries, but should not be treated an an unchanging tradition.

Romney Marsh: Environmental Change and Human Occupation in a Coastal Lowland, 1998

During the 15th century the population of Romney Marsh, using the term in the broad sense, declin... more During the 15th century the population of Romney Marsh, using the term in the broad sense, declined to a fraction of its former size. A study of Dengemarsh manor shows a remarkable stability of settlement and land-holding in the first three decades of the century. There were numerous small tenements comprising farmsteads with adjoining fields. The pattern probably remained relatively unchanged until the 1480s when land was engrossed to produce much larger holdings. The village of Old Romney contracted in the early 16th century having changed little in size since the late 14th century. By contrast, there is no evidence for a decrease in size in the nearby town of Lydd. The main period of engrossment and probably also of settlement abandonment is identified as the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Some of the reasons for these changes were the demand for wool from the local Wealden cloth industry and the absence of by-employment on the marsh to support smallholders.

Medieval Archaeology 50, 2006

German Trade in the North Atlantic c. 1400–1700. Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed. Mehler, Gardiner and Elvestad, 2019

Trade from 1400 onwards had an impact upon the North Atlantic region quite out of proportion to i... more Trade from 1400 onwards had an impact upon the North Atlantic region quite out of proportion to its volume. e opening of a ready market for dried sh, in particular, but also cloth, train oil and sulphur encouraged the production for export on a much larger scale than before. In return, a greater range of nished goods and raw materials was supplied by German mer- chants. Initially, trade was channelled through Bergen, but this system broke down, largely because English merchants sailed to Iceland. From the 1470s onwards, the number of German ships travelling to Iceland and Shetland increased. e Danish government struggled to control the trade in their North Atlantic territories, but rst in the Faroes and later in Iceland, they sought to impose greater restrictions on foreign merchants. e Danes licensed ships to trade at certain ports and from 1601 attempted to restrict the trade to their own merchants. e introduction summarizes the history of German trade in the North Atlantic, and outlines its economic and cultural impacts.

Journal of Irish Archaeology, 2018

The character of the late medieval rural landscape of Ireland has been difficult to identify.A su... more The character of the late medieval rural landscape of Ireland has been difficult to identify.A survey of the uplands in counties Antrim and Derry examined areas on the periphery of and beyond Anglo-Norman lordship. It recognised a number of areas where the earthworks of fields and associated buildings still survive.These are identified as the remains of a system of infield-outfield agriculture. Evidence for booley (transhumance) huts was surprisingly infrequent. It is suggested that either livestock were grazed closer to the lowland settlements or the upland communities took charge of the animals sent up in the summer months from the lowland sites.The pattern of townlands recorded in the seventeenth century suggests that the upland was systematically divided between communities in the valley, emphasising the role of the lands at higher elevations for grazing. Infield-outfield agriculture and oval buildings are likely to have been found not only in the uplands but also more widely over the north of Ireland in the late Middle Ages.

The Glynns, 2017

This summary of work draws attention to the richness of archaeological remains in one part of the... more This summary of work draws attention to the richness of archaeological remains in one part of the Antrim plateau. Late Bronze Age and later medieval remains were found and recorded.

Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 2017

A number of the ruined, late medieval buildings at Ardglass, Co Down, are discussed to consider t... more A number of the ruined, late medieval buildings at Ardglass, Co Down, are discussed to consider the way in which commerce took place. It is argued that one building provided both lodgings and shops on the ground floor from where the merchants’ goods might be sold, and another served as a dining room for the visiting traders. The pattern of lodgings and shops can be compared to the booths occupied by merchants elsewhere in the North Atlantic operating a form of trade distinctive of that region.

survey report, 2017

Survey work at Diskert Farm in Glenariff recorded the remains of seven buildings, an enclosure an... more Survey work at Diskert Farm in Glenariff recorded the remains of seven buildings, an enclosure and a boundary bank on a area of level ground on the side of the glen. These are likely to be of a number of dates, but the oval-shaped buildings are probably late medieval. Others may belong to the early modern period. Some cultivation ridges were also recorded.

excavation report, 2018

A trench was cut across a hut circle in Cloghcor Townland to locate and sample the buried soil. I... more A trench was cut across a hut circle in Cloghcor Townland to locate and sample the buried soil. It identified a deposit below the hut wall which contained numerous fragments of charcoal and burnt clay. Samples were submitted for radiocarbon dating and indicated that the building was dated to or was later than the Late Bronze Age.

Three early Anglo-Saxon sunken-featured buildings dating to the late fifth or early sixth century... more Three early Anglo-Saxon sunken-featured buildings dating to the late fifth or early sixth century were discovered during excavation. Finds suggest that stamp-decorated and grass-tempered pottery was made in the settlement. Burnt daub with a lime-washed surface was found, possibly from other, larger buildings. In the late tenth or early eleventh century the site was reoccupied. Traces of five timber buildings from this second phase of activity were recorded to the south of the parish church, which was built (or rebuilt) during this period. Other structures including a well and fence-line were excavated. During the later medieval period the area examined was probably part of the glebe of the parish of Botolphs. A ditch and rubbish pits of the later thirteenth and fourteenth centuries found here are to be associated with the nearby vicarage.

Three points are argued in this paper. The firrst is that for the English the businesses of fish... more Three points are argued in this paper. The firrst is that for the English the businesses of fishing and trade in the North Atlantic were inseparable. This mixed approach stands in sharp contrast to that of the Hanseatic merchants, who were solely traders. The second point is that the participants in fishing operations were working according to different strategies, which become comprehensible once we understand the cultural context in which their decisions were made. The final aspect is that the study of the fishing by the English and an understanding of the trading operations by the Hanse has helped to clarify the emerging concept of second-stage commercialisation of the fishing industry.

The Oxford Handbook of Later Medieval Archaeology, 2018

Medieval archaeologists, possessing elements of the landscape and the buildings of the past, toge... more Medieval archaeologists, possessing elements of the landscape and the buildings of the past, together with a good knowledge of the historical context, can recover many aspects of the way that space was perceived in the past. A phenomenological approach has been applied not only to castles, but also to the mundane world of peasants. Phenomenology emphasizes the experience of the world whereas archaeologists have been no less interested in the way in which that experience was manipulated and also in the competing ideas of space. Examples of encultured landscapes examined include natural places, gentry houses, village tofts, liminal places, and sites of pilgrimage. Drawing upon the evidence of place-names and documents, as well as the archaeological remains, it has been possible to reconstruct how people conceived of and experienced the world around them.

About 10% of the total National Roads Authority-funded excavations in the Republic of Ireland pro... more About 10% of the total National Roads Authority-funded excavations in the Republic of Ireland produced evidence for activity of this period. Sites investigated include manorial centres, moated sites, farmsteads, nucleated settlements, cemeteries, fields, ringforts, corn-drying kilns, refuse pits, iron- and charcoal-working sites and lime kilns. The majority of these excavations took place in the parts of Ireland that were under the control of the Anglo-Normans in the period from the late 12th century until the 14th century and by their descendents after that date. The area examined and the scale of excavations allows for the first time clearer statements to be made about the rural archaeology of the period from 1100 to 1600. In particular, it was possible to reinterpret the remains of later medieval houses to understand the character of their construction.
It is argued that this evidence from this review of road-scheme excavations suggest that a class of prosperous peasants existed in the countryside of Anglo-Norman Ireland. This indicates that not all wealth was concentrated in the hands of the landowning elite and that ordinary people were permitted, even encouraged, to prosper during this time. The evidence from the four moated sites excavated in advance of the road schemes hints strongly that Anglo-Norman Ireland was at its wealthiest in the second half of the 13th century. Overall, these excavations have greatly added to our understanding of the later medieval period in Ireland, particularly of rural lifeways during Anglo-Norman times.

M. F. Gardiner. 2007. The origins and persistence of manor houses in England, in M. F. Gardiner a... more M. F. Gardiner. 2007. The origins and persistence of manor houses in England, in M. F. Gardiner and S. Rippon (eds), Medieval Landscapes (Landscape History after Hoskins, 2), 170-82. Macclesfield: Windgather Press

The plan of the late medieval hall in England is well known from the evidence of buildings of the... more The plan of the late medieval hall in England is well known from the evidence of buildings of the thirteenth century and later. However, examination of excavated timber buildings suggests that the main elements of the hall plan can be identified from at least the late tenth century. The persistence of the plan over a period of at least 600 years may obscure the fact that the conception of the hall and details of its form were in a state of continuous change. Instead of beginning with an examination of the form of the hall, the study starts by considering what the room represented in social terms. An appreciation of the changing conceptions of lordship, community and honour allows a more subtle analysis of the development of the hall in the period before 1200. A combination of written sources with excavated remains to elucidate complex problems is one of the distinguishing features of medieval archaeology.

This collective monograph presents the current state of research regarding contemporary methods o... more This collective monograph presents the current state of research regarding contemporary methods of dealing with historic timber structures in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, Central Europe and Northwest Russia. The chapters are dedicated to the main aspects of the research and deal with archaeological evidence, written sources, the extant buildings themselves as evidence, as well as repair and maintenance. Researchers from four countries examine centuries-old timber structures that include churches, bell towers and dwellings in Europe and Russia. Based on the conclusions of these studies, they demonstrate various methods of archaeological, archival and empirical research and discuss appropriate measures of restoring and maintaining wooden structures. Historical and contemporary photographs along with new drawings richly document the buildings.

There is little evidence for the practice of whaling in Anglo-Saxon or later medieval England, ev... more There is little evidence for the practice of whaling in Anglo-Saxon or later medieval England, even though whales were caught on the opposite side of the English Channel in Normandy and Flanders. Stranded whales were exploited by coastal communities, but from the 11th century whales and other cetaceans were claimed by the king as ‘royal fish’. The difficulties of enforcing this claim against, on the one hand the holders of coastal lordships, and on the other against local inhabitants, led to recognition by the king of seigneurial claims. Whales and porpoises were a high-status food, though by the end of the Middle Ages whales may have been declining in popularity. It is argued that social aspirations and tensions were expressed in the possession and consumption of cetaceans. The finds of cetacean bone on archaeological sites are interpreted against the changes in their social value. Between about AD 1000 and 1300 bones are mainly discovered on high-status sites.

Becoming and Belonging in Ireland AD c.1200-1600, 2018

This paper examines the nature of the built landscape in sixteenth-century Ulster and considers w... more This paper examines the nature of the built landscape in sixteenth-century Ulster and considers why so little of it remains. It is necessary to deploy a range of evidence to try to identify surviving remains. Perhaps the most striking feature about the landscape of Gaelic Ulster was the lack of substantial investment in the construction of physical structures. That included not only houses, other buildings and fields, but also the construction of material boundaries of all sorts, including those of the farms and townlands. As a results it is difficult to find remains because human intervention was comparatively light.

Merchants, Measures and Money Understanding Technologies of Early Trade in a Comparative Perspective, 2021

The nature and operation of medieval trade in Iceland over seven centuries is examined in this pa... more The nature and operation of medieval trade in Iceland over seven centuries is examined in this paper. Three phases of trade can be distinguished. The first, from c. 900 was marked by the growing dominance of Nor- wegian traders who came to dominate overseas commerce and culminated with the union with Norway. The second from c. 1250 is marked by the growing importance of dried cod (stockfish) which superseded coarse cloth (vaðmál) as the major export from Iceland. The third phase in the 15th and 16th centuries was marked by the capture of the stockfish trade by the English and German merchants. The modest level of trade prevented the emergence of a merchant class in Iceland, but the demand for vaðmál and stockfish had a profound effect on Icelandic society and in the measures of value used. Coins were not employed, and trade was carried out by barter. The units for the measurement of value were successively silver, cloth and then stockfish. As the items of trade changed, so did the units of value.

Ulster Folklife, 2015

Transhumance, or booleyig as it is widely termed in Ireland, is often considered as a particular ... more Transhumance, or booleyig as it is widely termed in Ireland, is often considered as a particular folk practice, rather than a common response to the utilization of larger areas of poor-quality land. It is a usage which persisted over many centuries, but should not be treated an an unchanging tradition.

Romney Marsh: Environmental Change and Human Occupation in a Coastal Lowland, 1998

During the 15th century the population of Romney Marsh, using the term in the broad sense, declin... more During the 15th century the population of Romney Marsh, using the term in the broad sense, declined to a fraction of its former size. A study of Dengemarsh manor shows a remarkable stability of settlement and land-holding in the first three decades of the century. There were numerous small tenements comprising farmsteads with adjoining fields. The pattern probably remained relatively unchanged until the 1480s when land was engrossed to produce much larger holdings. The village of Old Romney contracted in the early 16th century having changed little in size since the late 14th century. By contrast, there is no evidence for a decrease in size in the nearby town of Lydd. The main period of engrossment and probably also of settlement abandonment is identified as the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Some of the reasons for these changes were the demand for wool from the local Wealden cloth industry and the absence of by-employment on the marsh to support smallholders.

Medieval Archaeology 50, 2006

German Trade in the North Atlantic c. 1400–1700. Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed. Mehler, Gardiner and Elvestad, 2019

Trade from 1400 onwards had an impact upon the North Atlantic region quite out of proportion to i... more Trade from 1400 onwards had an impact upon the North Atlantic region quite out of proportion to its volume. e opening of a ready market for dried sh, in particular, but also cloth, train oil and sulphur encouraged the production for export on a much larger scale than before. In return, a greater range of nished goods and raw materials was supplied by German mer- chants. Initially, trade was channelled through Bergen, but this system broke down, largely because English merchants sailed to Iceland. From the 1470s onwards, the number of German ships travelling to Iceland and Shetland increased. e Danish government struggled to control the trade in their North Atlantic territories, but rst in the Faroes and later in Iceland, they sought to impose greater restrictions on foreign merchants. e Danes licensed ships to trade at certain ports and from 1601 attempted to restrict the trade to their own merchants. e introduction summarizes the history of German trade in the North Atlantic, and outlines its economic and cultural impacts.

Journal of Irish Archaeology, 2018

The character of the late medieval rural landscape of Ireland has been difficult to identify.A su... more The character of the late medieval rural landscape of Ireland has been difficult to identify.A survey of the uplands in counties Antrim and Derry examined areas on the periphery of and beyond Anglo-Norman lordship. It recognised a number of areas where the earthworks of fields and associated buildings still survive.These are identified as the remains of a system of infield-outfield agriculture. Evidence for booley (transhumance) huts was surprisingly infrequent. It is suggested that either livestock were grazed closer to the lowland settlements or the upland communities took charge of the animals sent up in the summer months from the lowland sites.The pattern of townlands recorded in the seventeenth century suggests that the upland was systematically divided between communities in the valley, emphasising the role of the lands at higher elevations for grazing. Infield-outfield agriculture and oval buildings are likely to have been found not only in the uplands but also more widely over the north of Ireland in the late Middle Ages.

The Glynns, 2017

This summary of work draws attention to the richness of archaeological remains in one part of the... more This summary of work draws attention to the richness of archaeological remains in one part of the Antrim plateau. Late Bronze Age and later medieval remains were found and recorded.

Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 2017

A number of the ruined, late medieval buildings at Ardglass, Co Down, are discussed to consider t... more A number of the ruined, late medieval buildings at Ardglass, Co Down, are discussed to consider the way in which commerce took place. It is argued that one building provided both lodgings and shops on the ground floor from where the merchants’ goods might be sold, and another served as a dining room for the visiting traders. The pattern of lodgings and shops can be compared to the booths occupied by merchants elsewhere in the North Atlantic operating a form of trade distinctive of that region.

survey report, 2017

Survey work at Diskert Farm in Glenariff recorded the remains of seven buildings, an enclosure an... more Survey work at Diskert Farm in Glenariff recorded the remains of seven buildings, an enclosure and a boundary bank on a area of level ground on the side of the glen. These are likely to be of a number of dates, but the oval-shaped buildings are probably late medieval. Others may belong to the early modern period. Some cultivation ridges were also recorded.

excavation report, 2018

A trench was cut across a hut circle in Cloghcor Townland to locate and sample the buried soil. I... more A trench was cut across a hut circle in Cloghcor Townland to locate and sample the buried soil. It identified a deposit below the hut wall which contained numerous fragments of charcoal and burnt clay. Samples were submitted for radiocarbon dating and indicated that the building was dated to or was later than the Late Bronze Age.

Three early Anglo-Saxon sunken-featured buildings dating to the late fifth or early sixth century... more Three early Anglo-Saxon sunken-featured buildings dating to the late fifth or early sixth century were discovered during excavation. Finds suggest that stamp-decorated and grass-tempered pottery was made in the settlement. Burnt daub with a lime-washed surface was found, possibly from other, larger buildings. In the late tenth or early eleventh century the site was reoccupied. Traces of five timber buildings from this second phase of activity were recorded to the south of the parish church, which was built (or rebuilt) during this period. Other structures including a well and fence-line were excavated. During the later medieval period the area examined was probably part of the glebe of the parish of Botolphs. A ditch and rubbish pits of the later thirteenth and fourteenth centuries found here are to be associated with the nearby vicarage.

Three points are argued in this paper. The firrst is that for the English the businesses of fish... more Three points are argued in this paper. The firrst is that for the English the businesses of fishing and trade in the North Atlantic were inseparable. This mixed approach stands in sharp contrast to that of the Hanseatic merchants, who were solely traders. The second point is that the participants in fishing operations were working according to different strategies, which become comprehensible once we understand the cultural context in which their decisions were made. The final aspect is that the study of the fishing by the English and an understanding of the trading operations by the Hanse has helped to clarify the emerging concept of second-stage commercialisation of the fishing industry.

The Oxford Handbook of Later Medieval Archaeology, 2018

Medieval archaeologists, possessing elements of the landscape and the buildings of the past, toge... more Medieval archaeologists, possessing elements of the landscape and the buildings of the past, together with a good knowledge of the historical context, can recover many aspects of the way that space was perceived in the past. A phenomenological approach has been applied not only to castles, but also to the mundane world of peasants. Phenomenology emphasizes the experience of the world whereas archaeologists have been no less interested in the way in which that experience was manipulated and also in the competing ideas of space. Examples of encultured landscapes examined include natural places, gentry houses, village tofts, liminal places, and sites of pilgrimage. Drawing upon the evidence of place-names and documents, as well as the archaeological remains, it has been possible to reconstruct how people conceived of and experienced the world around them.

About 10% of the total National Roads Authority-funded excavations in the Republic of Ireland pro... more About 10% of the total National Roads Authority-funded excavations in the Republic of Ireland produced evidence for activity of this period. Sites investigated include manorial centres, moated sites, farmsteads, nucleated settlements, cemeteries, fields, ringforts, corn-drying kilns, refuse pits, iron- and charcoal-working sites and lime kilns. The majority of these excavations took place in the parts of Ireland that were under the control of the Anglo-Normans in the period from the late 12th century until the 14th century and by their descendents after that date. The area examined and the scale of excavations allows for the first time clearer statements to be made about the rural archaeology of the period from 1100 to 1600. In particular, it was possible to reinterpret the remains of later medieval houses to understand the character of their construction.
It is argued that this evidence from this review of road-scheme excavations suggest that a class of prosperous peasants existed in the countryside of Anglo-Norman Ireland. This indicates that not all wealth was concentrated in the hands of the landowning elite and that ordinary people were permitted, even encouraged, to prosper during this time. The evidence from the four moated sites excavated in advance of the road schemes hints strongly that Anglo-Norman Ireland was at its wealthiest in the second half of the 13th century. Overall, these excavations have greatly added to our understanding of the later medieval period in Ireland, particularly of rural lifeways during Anglo-Norman times.

M. F. Gardiner. 2007. The origins and persistence of manor houses in England, in M. F. Gardiner a... more M. F. Gardiner. 2007. The origins and persistence of manor houses in England, in M. F. Gardiner and S. Rippon (eds), Medieval Landscapes (Landscape History after Hoskins, 2), 170-82. Macclesfield: Windgather Press

The plan of the late medieval hall in England is well known from the evidence of buildings of the... more The plan of the late medieval hall in England is well known from the evidence of buildings of the thirteenth century and later. However, examination of excavated timber buildings suggests that the main elements of the hall plan can be identified from at least the late tenth century. The persistence of the plan over a period of at least 600 years may obscure the fact that the conception of the hall and details of its form were in a state of continuous change. Instead of beginning with an examination of the form of the hall, the study starts by considering what the room represented in social terms. An appreciation of the changing conceptions of lordship, community and honour allows a more subtle analysis of the development of the hall in the period before 1200. A combination of written sources with excavated remains to elucidate complex problems is one of the distinguishing features of medieval archaeology.

This collective monograph presents the current state of research regarding contemporary methods o... more This collective monograph presents the current state of research regarding contemporary methods of dealing with historic timber structures in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, Central Europe and Northwest Russia. The chapters are dedicated to the main aspects of the research and deal with archaeological evidence, written sources, the extant buildings themselves as evidence, as well as repair and maintenance. Researchers from four countries examine centuries-old timber structures that include churches, bell towers and dwellings in Europe and Russia. Based on the conclusions of these studies, they demonstrate various methods of archaeological, archival and empirical research and discuss appropriate measures of restoring and maintaining wooden structures. Historical and contemporary photographs along with new drawings richly document the buildings.

There is little evidence for the practice of whaling in Anglo-Saxon or later medieval England, ev... more There is little evidence for the practice of whaling in Anglo-Saxon or later medieval England, even though whales were caught on the opposite side of the English Channel in Normandy and Flanders. Stranded whales were exploited by coastal communities, but from the 11th century whales and other cetaceans were claimed by the king as ‘royal fish’. The difficulties of enforcing this claim against, on the one hand the holders of coastal lordships, and on the other against local inhabitants, led to recognition by the king of seigneurial claims. Whales and porpoises were a high-status food, though by the end of the Middle Ages whales may have been declining in popularity. It is argued that social aspirations and tensions were expressed in the possession and consumption of cetaceans. The finds of cetacean bone on archaeological sites are interpreted against the changes in their social value. Between about AD 1000 and 1300 bones are mainly discovered on high-status sites.

by Edith Peytremann, Claudia Theune, Juan Antonio Quirós Castillo, Mark Gardiner, Tibor Ákos Rácz, John Hines, Miklós Takács, Ingvild Øye, Paolo de Vingo, Heiko Steuer, Rainer Schreg, and Terence Barry

As President of the RURALIA assossiation I like to present the Program, Abstract Book and Excursi... more As President of the RURALIA assossiation I like to present the Program, Abstract Book and Excursion Guide. For further information and the published conference papers see: ruralia.cz

As President of the international RURALIA association for the archaeology of medieval settlement ... more As President of the international RURALIA association for the archaeology of medieval settlement and rural life I would like to annouce the call for papers for our next conference in Stirling, Scotland in September 2019. The topic is: “Seasonal Settlement in the Medieval and Early Modern Countryside”