Francisco Pugliese | Universidade de Brasília - UnB (original) (raw)

Papers by Francisco Pugliese

Cave and Karst Systems of the World, 2020

Lagoa Santa recorded ~12,500 years of non-continuous human occupation in cavities and open air si... more Lagoa Santa recorded ~12,500 years of non-continuous human occupation in cavities and open air sites. For the early- and middle Holocene occupations, lithic technology, zooarchaeology, osteological markers and multi-isotopic analyses indicate groups of foragers with low mobility and a subsistence strategy focused on gathering plant foods and hunting small and mid-sized animals but no megafauna. A high frequency of caries is observed among women. Lithics include small flakes and cores of quartz. Artefacts like projectile points and axe blades occur marginally. Funerary rituals included primary burials (10.3–10.6 cal kyBP), reduction of the body followed by secondary burial (9.4–9.6 cal kyBP) and pits filled with disarticulated and fragmented bones of a single individual (~8.2–8.6 cal kyBP). Rock art abounds, including the oldest securely dated case of South America (10.5 cal kyBP). Representations include animals, filiform anthropomorphs, geometric motifs, manioc’s tubers and semi-lunar axes. Similar styles are found over a large area of Brazil. Ancient DNA extracted from several early Holocene skeletons indicates they are entirely nested within past and present Native American genetic diversity. Pottery arrives during the late Holocene with undecorated vessels of varying sizes (0.2–417 L), tubular pipes, spindle whorls, highly polished axes and ritual semi-lunar axes (Aratu-Sapucaí-Una Tradition). In the site ‘Vereda III’, more than 3,000 in situ sherds indicate repeated use for ritual feasts centred on fermented beverages: (maize?). Polychrome pottery occurring in low frequency testify to the late presence of Tupi-speaking groups. During the colonial period, Lagoa Santa housed large haciendas for cattle and agriculture, resulting in the formation of large farms with thousands of enslaved people. Stub-stemmed earthenware pipes from the nineteenth century, an important element of African diasporic identities, were produced in the region.

Infrastructure in Archaeological Discourse, 2024

Infrastructure represents the accretionary human modification of a landscape that persists based ... more Infrastructure represents the accretionary human modification of a landscape that persists based on its function. Its persistence is not only related to its practicality but also to the belonging and materialization that such places represent in long-term social relationships. Archaeological evidence shows that it is not the existence of one type of group or one type of government, nor even a particular kind of economic configuration, that results in the construction and resultant social conditions of infrastructure. In this chapter, attention is called to the state's management of terrestrial resources through two types of infrastructure evident in both archaeological and modern cases: water-management and roadbuilding. These examples demonstrate how knowledge of past infrastructure has both practical and symbolic applications for contemporary states as their leaders and inhabitants address concerns including population growth, environmental dynamics, climate change, the desire for economic growth, and internal and external challenges to national sovereignty.

Infrastructure in Archaeological Discourse, 2024

Places and their meanings persistently fabricate social life and are sources of knowledge that pr... more Places and their meanings persistently fabricate social life and are sources of knowledge that provide the setting for action, thought, feeling, and expression. The goal of this chapter is to discuss the widespread pattern of Indigenous infrastructure in Amazonia, particularly the construction of shellmounds, and explore their significance to the landscapes and ancient territories where they are found. The archaeological data produced so far indicate that the intensification of landscape alteration during the middle Holocene was not accompanied by a specialization in the production or consumption of specific food types. Instead, these infrastructural sites were built in a context where the diversification in resource exploitation encouraged continuous occupation over millennia. Today, Indigenous and other traditional communities occupying the sites are attracted to their exceptional morphology, which guarantees a strategic place during wet seasons. One of the objectives of this work is to highlight the continuous history and ancestral creation and recreation of contemporary Indigenous infrastructure in Amazonia. Shellmounds and other infrastructural sites make up exceptional landscapes that have been built and reoccupied for millennia and should be recognized as legacies to the empowerment of traditional communities and conservancy of the rainforest.

Nature Communications, 2022

irst described over 120 years ago in Brazil, Amazonian Dark Earths (ADEs) are expanses of dark so... more irst described over 120 years ago in Brazil, Amazonian Dark Earths (ADEs) are expanses of dark soil that are exceptionally fertile and contain large quantities of archaeological artefacts. The elevated fertility of the dark and often deep A horizon of ADEs is widely regarded as an outcome of pre-Columbian human influence 1. Archaeological research provides clear evidence that their widespread formation in lowland South America was concentrated in the Late Holocene, an outcome of sharp human population growth that peaked towards 1000 BP 2-4. In their recent paper Silva et al. 5 argue that the higher fertility of ADEs is principally a result of fluvial deposition and, as a corollary, that pre-Columbian peoples just made use of these locales, contributing little to their enhanced nutrient status. Soil formation is inherently complex and often difficult to interpret, requiring a combination of geochemical data, stratigraphy, and dating. Although Silva et al. use this combination of methods to make their case 5 , their hypothesis, based on the analysis of a single ADE site and its immediate surroundings (Caldeirão, see maps in Silva et al. 5), is too limited to distinguish among the multiple possible mechanisms for ADE formation. Moreover, it disregards or misreads a wealth of evidence produced by archaeologists, soil scientists, geographers and anthropologists, showing that ADEs are anthropic soils formed on land surfaces enriched by inputs associated with pre-Columbian sedentary settlement 6-9. To be accepted, and be pertinent at a regional level, Silva et al.'s hypothesis 5 would need to be supported by solid evidence (from numerous ADE sites), which we demonstrate is lacking. Geomorphological and pedological considerations There are several problems with reviving the argument 10 that ADE fertility originates from deposited alluvium. First, the Caldeirão ADE site is located on a Miocene plateau~20 m above the Solimões River floodplain (~40 m asl), which in itself precludes significant flooding during the Holocene 11. Second,

Minerals, 2022

This study describes the composition and provenance of dense bodies or structures present in unch... more This study describes the composition and provenance of dense bodies or structures present in uncharred plant vestiges recovered at Monte Castelo (6000–700 cal. AP-SW Amazonia). It aimed to disclose some aspects of this plant remains’ interactions with the sedimentary matrix of the site over the 200 years (at least) since its initial deposit, from the point of view of the soft tissue mineralization processes. Two specimens were examined using XFCT, X-ray MicroCT, and SEM-EDS techniques to reveal the presence and distribution of Ca, K, Mn, Fe, Ti, Si, S, Cu, Br, Rb, Sr, Zn, and Zr. These attributes were integrated with compositional ED-XRF and XRD measured data from the sedimentary substrate. Results show that some of the chemical elements present in solid bodies and anatomical structures of the plant remains refer to the sedimentary environment, while others have an endogenous origin. These include mainly Rb and Br, which were interpreted as the result of degradation processes of the internal tissues, where they are mainly present. Except Sr and Zr, a portion of all the other elements entered and disperse into the sample structures from the sedimentary substrate. Its presence is attributable to mechanisms such as attachment, diffusion and impregnation through the outermost tissues, where they are mostly concentrated. The composition of most of the dense bodies consists of both endogenous and exogenous elements.

Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas, 2022

Resumo: Este artigo apresenta os resultados da análise petrográfica realizada em 22 fragmentos de... more Resumo: Este artigo apresenta os resultados da análise petrográfica realizada em 22 fragmentos de cerâmicas provenientes da fase Bacabal, do sambaqui Monte Castelo (Rondônia), uma das cerâmicas mais antigas da Amazônia, datada de mais de 4.000 anos AP. A análise petrográfica confirmou a alta frequência de espículas de espongiários dulcícolas (cauixi) como antiplástico, com dados inéditos sobre a distribuição das espículas, que permitem inferir o processo de preparação da pasta cerâmica e de manufatura do vasilhame. A mesma proporção entre matriz argilosa e cauixi foi detectada ao longo de todas as camadas Bacabal, independente de variações individuais para cada elemento. Isso permite supor a existência de uma receita de cerâmica mantida ao longo da ocupação Bacabal do sítio. O mesmo tipo de cauixi descrito na pasta cerâmica foi identificado em sedimentos argilosos prospectados na região, embora em frequência menor. Assim, a fabricação das cerâmicas Bacabal poderia ter envolvido uma combinação entre: seleção de argilas naturalmente ricas em espículas e cauixi adicionado intencionalmente. O cauixi na fase Bacabal representa um caso excepcional para a investigação sobre o desenvolvimento de tecnologias cerâmicas, sustentadas pela utilização desses antiplásticos, que se tornaram populares durante o Holoceno Superior nas terras baixas da América do Sul.

Recent advances in the archaeology of lowland South America are furthering our understanding of t... more Recent advances in the archaeology of lowland South America are furthering our understanding of the Holocene development of plant cultivation and domestication, cultural niche construction , and relationships between environmental changes and cultural strategies of food production. This article offers new data on plant and landscape management and mobility in Southwestern Amazonia during a period of environmental change at the Middle to Late Holocene transition, based on archaeobotanical analysis of the Monte Castelo shellmound, occupied between 6000 and 650 yr BP and located in a modern, seasonally flooded savanna-forest mosaic. Through diachronic comparisons of carbonized plant remains, phytoliths, and starch grains, we construct an ecology of resource use and explore its implications for the long-term history of landscape formation, resource management practices, and mobility. We show how, despite important changes visible in the archaeological record of the shellmound during this period, there persisted an ancient, local, and resilient pattern of plant management which implies a degree of stability in both subsistence and settlement patterns over the last 6000 years. This pattern is characterized by management practices that relied on increasingly diversified, rather than intensive, food production systems. Our findings have important implications in debates regarding the history of settlement permanence, population growth, and carrying capacity in the Amazon basin.

Latin American Antiquity, 2021

Our recent data, collected using remotely sensed imagery and unmanned aerial vehicle surveys, rev... more Our recent data, collected using remotely sensed imagery and unmanned aerial vehicle surveys, reveal the extremely well-defined patterning of archaeological plaza villages in the Brazilian Acre state in terms of size, layout, chronology, and material culture. The villages comprise various earthen mounds arranged around central plazas and roads that radiate outward from, or converge on, the sites. The roads connected the villages situated 2-10 km from each other in eastern Acre. Our study attests to the existence of large, sedentary, interfluvial populations sharing the same sociocultural identities, as well as structured patterns of movement and spatial planning in relation to operative road networks during the late precolonial period. The plaza villages of Acre show similarity with the well-documented communities organized by road networks in the regions of the Upper Xingu and Llanos de Mojos. Taking into consideration ethnohistorical and ethnographic evidence, as well as the presence of comparable archaeological sites and earthwork features along the southern margin of Amazonia, we suggest that the plaza villages of Acre were linked by an interregional road network to other neighboring territories situated along the southern Amazonian rim and that movement along roads was the primary mode of human transport in Amazonian interfluves. Los recientes datos, recopilados por nosotros a través de prospecciones utilizando imágenes de sensores remotos y vehículos aéreos no tripulados (VANT), revelaron aldeas arqueológicas con plazas en el estado brasileño de Acre que destacan por pre-sentar patrones bien definidos en términos de tamaño, diseño, cronología y cultura material. Las aldeas comprenden varios mon-tículos de tierra dispuestos alrededor de plazas centrales y caminos que se proyectan o convergen desde o hacia los sitios. Los caminos conectaban las aldeas situadas a una distancia de 2 a 10 km entre sí en el este de Acre. Nuestro estudio atestigua la existencia de grandes poblaciones interfluviales sedentarias que comparten las mismas identidades socioculturales, así como patrones estructurados de movimiento y planificación espacial en relación con los sistemas operativos de redes viales durante el período pre-Colonial Tardío. Las aldeas con plazas de Acre muestran una similitud con comunidades bien documentadas orga-nizadas por redes de caminos en las regiones del Alto Xingu y los Llanos de Mojos. Teniendo en cuenta la evidencia etnohistórica y etnográfica, así como la presencia de sitios arqueológicos comparables, y características de movimiento de tierras a lo largo del margen sur de la Amazonía, sugerimos que las aldeas con plazas de Acre estaban conectadas a los territorios vecinos por una red de caminos interregionales situados a lo largo del borde sur de la Amazonía, y ese movimiento a lo largo de las caminos fue el principal modo de transporte humano en las zonas interfluviales amazónicas. Palabras clave: Amazonia interfluvial, prospección con VANT, movimiento de tierras, redes de caminos, plazas

in this work, several attributes of the internal morphology of drupaceous fruits found in the arc... more in this work, several attributes of the internal morphology of drupaceous fruits found in the archaeological site Monte Castelo (Rondonia, Brazil) are analyzed by means of two different imaging methods. The aim is to explore similarities and differences in the visualization and analytical properties of the images obtained via High Resolution Light Microscopy and X-ray micro-computed tomography (X-ray Microct) methods. Both provide data about the three-layered pericarp (exo-, meso-and endocarp) of the studied exemplars, defined by cell differentiation, vascularisation, cellular contents, presence of sclerenchyma cells and secretory cavities. However, it is possible to identify a series of differences between the information that can be obtained through each of the methods. These variations are related to the definition of contours and fine details of some characteristics, their spatial distribution, size attributes, optical properties and material preservation. the results obtained from both imaging methods are complementary, contributing to a more exhaustive morphological study of the plant remains. X-ray Microct in phase-contrast mode represents a suitable non-destructive analytic technique when sample preservation is required. The identification of the taxonomic provenance and preservation conditions of plant remains recovered from archaeological deposits is at the basis of archaeobotanical research. The whole procedure involves a detailed description of observable characteristics of the morphological phenotype of the sample, together with a comparative analysis of modern and ancient exemplars of related taxa. On the other hand, plant remains from archaeological sites are not always recognizable through their external morphological characteristics, for reasons that include the presence of similar traits between different species, morphological changes induced by taphonomic processes, and other issues which hinder the identification of specimens. In these cases, the analysis of the internal characteristics of the specimen can increase the amount of morphological data used to determine the anatomic and taxonomic provenance of ancient plant remains. In general, Archaeobotany has a wide palette of microscopy techniques that allow for various descriptions of both external and internal morphological features of archaeological plant samples 1,2. In fact, it is possible to obtain open

The Holocene, 2020

Monte Castelo, an archaeological shell mound located on the southwestern periphery of the Amazon ... more Monte Castelo, an archaeological shell mound located on the southwestern periphery of the Amazon basin, is an artificial forest island occupied from the Middle to Late Holocene, as it contains one of the longest, continuous sequences of human occupation anywhere in the basin. Analysis of fish remains investigates fluctuations in the fish communities that are markers of changes in the paleoenvironment. The 8,112 taxonomically identified remains document diagnostic taxa that are drought-tolerant (armoured catfishes, swamp-eels and tiger fishes) and from swampy environments, indicating probable occupation during low-waters periods. The results from Monte Castelo contrasts with the use of shell mounds as refuges from high-water season floods, a dominant hypothesis. A considerable shift in the nature of the fish spectrum occurred around 4,000 BP with increased diversity; the number of taxa jumps from 18 to 48. The Middle Holocene occupations, from 6,000 to 4,000 BP, reflect long-term stability in drought-tolerant taxa collaborating with paleoecological evidence of dryer conditions. The post 4,000 BP introduction of small-sized cichlids and characins suggests an initial exploitation of flooded forests. Archaeological fish remains corroborate paleoenvironmental records of increased precipitation between the Middle and Late Holocene. The probable replacement of some savanna areas by forest vegetation, and the accompanying alteration of aquatic landscapes, is documented through the presence/absence of certain taxa in Monte Castelo’s occupations. This suggests new economic strategies and the exploitation of new ecological niches, as the fish remains correspond to approximately 80% of the vertebrate fauna throughout the archaeological sequence.

Monte Castelo, an archeological shell mound located on the southwestern periphery of the Amazon b... more Monte Castelo, an archeological shell mound located on the southwestern periphery of the Amazon basin, is an artificial forest island occupied from the Middle to late-Holocene, and it contains one of the longest, continuous sequences of human occupation anywhere in the basin. Analysis of fish remains investigates fluctuations in the fish communities that are markers of changes in the paleoenvironment. The 8112 taxonomically identified remains document diagnostic taxa that are drought-tolerant (armoured catfishes, swamp-eels and tiger fishes) and from swampy environments, indicating probable occupation during low-waters periods. The results from Monte Castelo contrasts with the use of shell mounds as refuges from high-water season floods, a dominant hypothesis. A considerable shift in the nature of the fish spectrum occurred around 4000 BP with increased diversity; the number of taxa jumps from 18 to 48. The Middle Holocene occupations, from 6000 to 4000 BP, reflect long-term stability in drought-tolerant taxa collaborating with paleoecological evidence of dryer conditions. The post 4000 BP introduction of small-sized cichlids and characins suggests an initial exploitation of flooded forests. Archeological fish remains corroborate paleoenvironmental records of increased precipitation between the Middle and Late-Holocene. The probable replacement of some savanna areas by forest vegetation, and the accompanying alteration of aquatic landscapes, is documented through the presence/absence of certain taxa in Monte Castelo's occupations. This suggests new economic strategies and the exploitation of new ecological niches, as the fish remains correspond to approximately 80% of the vertebrate fauna throughout the archeological sequence.

This work applies the X-ray MicroCT imaging technique to discuss the identification and preservat... more This work applies the X-ray MicroCT imaging technique to discuss the identification and preservation/dis-turbance conditions of plant remains from the Monte Castelo archaeological site, in Brazil's southwestern Amazonia. A preliminary hypothesis based on external morphological traits and the presence of typical starch grains, associates these materials to the Poaceae caryopsis. Moreover, based on their well-preserved non-charred aspect, mineralization was considered as a possible in-situ preservation process. Data from the X-ray computed microtomography (MicroCT) analysis showed that the internal anatomy of the samples corresponds to another type of fruit, described as a small drupe sharing characters with some Anacardiaceae fruits. Additionally, all studied specimens contain a number of exogenous organic and inorganic elements suggesting the action of some disturbance processes on the Monte Castelo plant material.

Lapa do Santo rockshelter, a Paleoindian site located in Eastern-Central Brazil, presented two ma... more Lapa do Santo rockshelter, a Paleoindian site located in Eastern-Central Brazil, presented two main occupations; one during Early Holocene (12,460 to 8700 cal BP), and a latter in Middle Holocene (5100 to 4200 cal BP). In spite of this 3600 year gap, the stratigraphy and general characteristics of the material culture did not indicate any visible discontinuity. This led us to hypothesise a reoccupation of the rockshelter by the same cultural group, tested by means of statistical analyses comparing lithics, bone artifacts, and faunal remains from early and middle Holocene layers. No significant differences were found, and our results indicate the presence of a cultural tradition that persisted for 8240 years, or roughly 412 generations.

Las Siete Maravillas de la Amazonía precolombina, 2017

The development of agriculture is one of humankind's most pivotal achievements. Questions about p... more The development of agriculture is one of humankind's most pivotal achievements. Questions about plant domestication and the origins of agriculture have engaged scholars for well over a century, with implications for understanding its legacy on global subsistence strategies, plant distribution, population health and the global methane budget. Rice is one of the most important crops to be domesticated globally, with both Asia (Oryza sativa L.) and Africa (Oryza glaberrima Steud.) discussed as primary centres of domestication. However, until now the pre-Columbian domestication of rice in the Americas has not been documented. Here we document the domestication of Oryza sp. wild rice by the mid-Holocene residents of the Monte Castelo shell mound starting at approximately 4,000 cal. yr bp, evidenced by increasingly larger rice husk phytoliths. Our data provide evidence for the domestication of wild rice in a region of the Amazon that was also probably the cradle of domestication of other major crops such as cassava (Manihot esculenta), peanut (Arachis hypogaea) and chilli pepper (Capsicum sp.). These results underline the role of wetlands as prime habitats for plant domestication worldwide. H E G F J J J J I Articles Nature ecology & evolutioN

This article presents the state of the art of the studies about the Bacabal ceramic archaeologica... more This article presents the state of the art of the studies about the Bacabal ceramic archaeological phase, created by the Brazilian archaeologist Eurico Miller in the early of 1990’s to classify the pottery found in archaeological sites related to wetlands in southwestern Amazon, in the middle Guaporé river basin, in the border between Brazil and Bolivia. The dates for Bacabal phase span since ca. 2000 BC until ca. 1000 AD and the relationship between this ceramics and others found around and beyond middle Guaporé river is discussed.

Cave and Karst Systems of the World, 2020

Infrastructure in Archaeological Discourse, 2024

Nature Communications, 2022

Minerals, 2022

Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas, 2022

Latin American Antiquity, 2021

The Holocene, 2020

Las Siete Maravillas de la Amazonía precolombina, 2017

El año 2017 un grupo de reconocid@s arqueólog@s escribieron para el IV Encuentro Internacional de... more El año 2017 un grupo de reconocid@s arqueólog@s escribieron para el IV Encuentro Internacional de Arqueología Amazónica, un libro sobre “Las siete maravillas de la Amazonia Precolombina”, con la intención de mostrar los resultados de las investigaciones arqueológicas de las últimas décadas y además hacer un llamado a las autoridades locales, nacionales e internacionales sobre la necesidad de conocer este legado y aplicar medidas para el cuidado del patrimonio cultural de este enorme territorio, en el cual la naturaleza y la cultura intervienen de una manera vinculante.
Este libro presenta siete “high lights” de la Amazonia precolombina que deben ser de conocimiento general: 1) Los concheros de la Amazonia, sitios con una profunda historia cultural de por lo menos 6.000 años de antigüedad en el cual fueron encontradas las primeras evidencias de consumo de plantas domésticas y el uso de vasijas cerámicas, 2) Montículos habitaciones con variabilidades regionales, que en algunos casos llegan a ser importantes construcciones arquitectónicas, 3) Geoglifos y Zanjas, que se encuentran demarcando aldeas y espacios rituales al suroeste de la Amazonía, 4) “Terras pretas” o tierras negras, un legado de las actividades de las poblaciones indígenas precolombinas que aumenta el rendimiento de los suelos, 5) Camellones y una diversidad de sistemas agrícolas destinados a mejorar las condiciones del suelo y contrarrestar los efectos de prolongadas sequías y/o inundaciones, 6) monumentos megalíticos, construcciones excepcionales en la Amazonia, que nos develan nociones de ritualidad y territorialidad de los pueblos prehispánicos y 7) el arte rupestre amazónico, no solo como una fuente de inspiración artística sino y sobretodo como una materialidad más que el arqueólogo complementa con otras evidencias para tratar de interpretar su rol y significado en el pasado.

Lagoa Santa Karst: Brazil’s Iconic Karst Region, 2020

Lagoa Santa recorded 12,500 years of non-continuous human occupation in cavities and open air sit... more Lagoa Santa recorded 12,500 years of non-continuous human occupation in cavities and open air sites. For the early-and middle Holocene occupations, lithic technology , zooarchaeology, osteological markers and multi-isotopic analyses indicate groups of foragers with low mobility and a subsistence strategy focused on gathering plant foods and hunting small and mid-sized animals but no megafauna. A high frequency of caries is observed among women. Lithics include small flakes and cores of quartz. Artefacts like projectile points and axe blades occur marginally. Funerary rituals included primary burials (10.3–10.6 cal kyBP), reduction of the body followed by secondary burial (9.4–9.6 cal kyBP) and pits filled with disarticulated and fragmented bones of a single individual (8.2–8.6 cal kyBP). Rock art abounds, including the oldest securely dated case of South America (10.5 cal kyBP). Representations include animals, filiform anthropomorphs, geometric motifs, manioc’s tubers and semi-lunar axes. Similar styles are found over a large area of Brazil. Ancient DNA extracted from several early Holocene skeletons indicates they are entirely nested within past and present Native American genetic diversity. Pottery arrives during the late Holocene with undecorated vessels of varying sizes (0.2–417 L), tubular pipes, spindle whorls, highly polished axes and ritual semi-lunar axes (Aratu-Sapucaí-Una Tradition). In the site ‘Vereda III’, more than 3,000 in situ sherds indicate repeated use for ritual feasts centred on fermented beverages: (maize?). Polychrome pottery occurring in low frequency testify to the late presence of Tupi-speaking groups. During the colonial period, Lagoa Santa housed large haciendas for cattle and agriculture, resulting in the formation of large farms with thousands of enslaved people. Stub-stemmed earthenware pipes from the nineteenth century, an important element of African diasporic identities, were produced in the region.

by André Strauss, Ximena Suarez Villagran, Danilo V Bernardo, Francisco Pugliese, João Carlos Moreno de Sousa, Mark Hubbe, Heather M Rockwell, Tiago Hermenegildo, alberto barioni, Joachim Wahl, and Gustavo Neves de Souza

Antiquity, 2016

Early Archaic human skeletal remains found in a burial context in Lapa do Santo in east-central B... more Early Archaic human skeletal remains found in a burial context in Lapa do Santo in east-central Brazil provide a rare glimpse into the lives of hunter-gatherer communities in South America, including their rituals for dealing with the dead. These included the reduction of the body by means of mutilation, defleshing, tooth removal, exposure to fire and possibly cannibalism, followed by the secondary burial of the remains according to strict rules. In a later period, pits were filled with disarticulated bones of a single individual without signs of body manipulation, demonstrating that the region was inhabited by dynamic groups in constant transformation over a period of centuries.