Acquisition of Spatial Knowledge Through Visual Exploration of Simulated Environments (original) (raw)
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Cognitive processing, 2002
In natural and virtual environments (VE) spatial learning depends on several factors including the spatial goal, environmental complexity and mode of learning. A factor influencing the mode of learning is the extent to which exploration is self-governed. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of active (self-governed) vs. passive (avatarguided) exploration on the organization of spatial knowledge of a large-scale VE in a wayfinding task. In particular, we wanted to test the hypothesis that self-governed exploration promotes the creation of a survey-type representation when participants are requested to explore efficiently (i.e. avoid repeatedly traversing the same paths).
Visual Cognition, 2008
We investigated memories of room-sized spatial layouts learned by sequentially or simultaneously viewing objects from a stationary position. In three experiments, sequential viewing (one or two objects at a time) yielded subsequent memory performance that was equivalent or superior to simultaneous viewing of all objects, even though sequential viewing lacked direct access to the entire layout. This finding was replicated by replacing sequential viewing with directed viewing in which all objects were presented simultaneously and participants' attention was externally focused on each object sequentially, indicating that the advantage of sequential viewing over simultaneous viewing may have originated from focal attention to individual object locations. These results suggest that memory representation of object-to-object relations can be constructed efficiently by encoding each object location separately, when those locations are defined within a single spatial reference system. These findings highlight the importance of considering object presentation procedures when studying spatial learning mechanisms. An important characteristic of spatial learning is that space can be learned in a variety of ways. When memorizing the layout of a room, for example, the whole layout may be seen from a single viewpoint. Alternatively, only a portion of the environment may be visible at any given time (e.g., full view may be blocked by obstacles) and objects in the room must be viewed sequentially. In addition, information about the spatial layout is available in multiple modalities. For instance, one can see where windows are located (vision), localize sounds coming from a TV (audition), register direction and distance between a door and a couch through body movement (proprioception), 1 and feel a remote on the tabletop as you reach for it (haptics). As such, in order to have a comprehensive understanding of human spatial memory, it is critical to explore how different ways of learning environments influence subsequent mental representations of space. Numerous studies have investigated how visually learning a spatial layout from a stationary viewing position affects spatial memory performance (e.g.
The process of spatial knowledge acquisition in a square and a circular virtual environment
Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 2007
This study investigated the effect of the environmental structure (circular vs. square environment) on spatial knowledge acquisition in a desktop virtual situation in which self-determined movement was allowed with a total of 120 participants: 7-, 8-year-old children; 11, 12-yearold children, and adults. In all measurements of spatial knowledge acquisition an overall developmental performance increase from younger children to adults was found. In contrast to that, the exploration and learning behavior did not differ between adults and children. Furthermore, the environmental structure influenced the number of trials needed to learn the two routes used and the distance walked to the determined landmarks. All these tasks were easier in a circular than in a square environment. This influence of the environmental structure was absent in the direction estimations task. The advantage of spatial knowledge acquisition in a circular environment in three of four tasks is discussed.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2009
Spatial pattern learning permits the learning of the location of objects in space relative to each other without reference to discrete visual landmarks or environmental geometry. In the present experiment, we investigated conditions that facilitate spatial pattern learning. Specifically, human participants searched in a real environment or interactive 3-D computer-generated virtual environment open-field search task for four hidden goal locations arranged in a diamond configuration located in a 5 9 5 matrix of raised bins. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: Pattern Only, Landmark ? Pattern, or Cues ? Pattern. All participants experienced a Training phase followed by a Testing phase. Visual cues were coincident with the goal locations during Training only in the Cues ? Pattern group whereas a single visual cue at a non-goal location maintained a consistent spatial relationship with the goal locations during Training only in the Landmark ? Pattern group. All groups were then tested in the absence of visual cues.
Animal Cognition, 2010
Spatial pattern learning permits the learning of the location of objects in space relative to each other without reference to discrete visual landmarks or environmental geometry. In the present experiment, we investigated conditions that facilitate spatial pattern learning. Specifically, human participants searched in a real environment or interactive 3-D computer-generated virtual environment open-field search task for four hidden goal locations arranged in a diamond configuration located in a 5 9 5 matrix of raised bins. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: Pattern Only, Landmark ? Pattern, or Cues ? Pattern. All participants experienced a Training phase followed by a Testing phase. Visual cues were coincident with the goal locations during Training only in the Cues ? Pattern group whereas a single visual cue at a non-goal location maintained a consistent spatial relationship with the goal locations during Training only in the Landmark ? Pattern group. All groups were then tested in the absence of visual cues.
2004
A growing interdisciplinary literature has been concerned with object cognition and its relation to deictic/indexical reference mechanisms. This literature postulates that explanation of many phenomena in perception requires appeal to interactions between agent and environment, and to the ways that sensory-motor information connects to cognition through deictic (or demonstrative) reference. In this paper we report a study of the ability to keep track of distal targets in informationally impoverished situations -in particular when only the direction of these objects is known and not their locations. This study introduces a new experimental paradigm called the Modified Traveling Salesman Problem. This task requires subjects to visit once and only once n invisible targets in a 2D display, using a virtual vehicle controlled by the subject. Subjects can only see the directions of the targets from the current location of the vehicle, displayed by a set of directional segments that can be viewed inside a circular window surrounding the vehicle. Two conditions were compared. In the "allocentric" condition, subjects see the vehicle move across the screen and change orientation under their command. The "egocentric" condition is similar except for how the information is provided: the position and orientation of the vehicle icon remains fixed at the center of the screen and only target directions, as indicated by the directional segments, change as the subject "moves" the vehicle and changes its orientation relative to the objects (but not relative to the screen). The unexpected finding is that this task can be performed, in either condition, for up to 10 targets. We consider two types of strategies that might be used, "location-based" strategies and "deictic direction-based" strategies. Location-based strategies rely on spatial memory and attempt to infer the locations of all the targets. Direction-based strategies rely on a deictic frame of reference and focus on the directional segments themselves, keeping track of the ones that represent already-visited or to-be-visited targets. A number of observations suggest that the direction-based strategy was used, at least for larger numbers of targets, which is consistent with the deictic approach. According to our hypothesis, keeping track of the directional segments requires the use of deictic strategies for tracking segments and associating them with their status in the task -given by current status predicates Visited(x) or Not-visited(x) -perhaps using visual indexes , deictic pointers , or object files .
Journal of Vision, 2004
A growing interdisciplinary literature has been concerned with object cognition and its relation to deictic/indexical reference mechanisms. This literature postulates that explanation of many phenomena in perception requires appeal to interactions between agent and environment, and to the ways that sensory-motor information connects to cognition through deictic (or demonstrative) reference. In this paper we report a study of the ability to keep track of distal targets in informationally impoverished situations -in particular when only the direction of these objects is known and not their locations. This study introduces a new experimental paradigm called the Modified Traveling Salesman Problem. This task requires subjects to visit once and only once n invisible targets in a 2D display, using a virtual vehicle controlled by the subject. Subjects can only see the directions of the targets from the current location of the vehicle, displayed by a set of directional segments that can be viewed inside a circular window surrounding the vehicle. Two conditions were compared. In the "allocentric" condition, subjects see the vehicle move across the screen and change orientation under their command. The "egocentric" condition is similar except for how the information is provided: the position and orientation of the vehicle icon remains fixed at the center of the screen and only target directions, as indicated by the directional segments, change as the subject "moves" the vehicle and changes its orientation relative to the objects (but not relative to the screen). The unexpected finding is that this task can be performed, in either condition, for up to 10 targets. We consider two types of strategies that might be used, "location-based" strategies and "deictic direction-based" strategies. Location-based strategies rely on spatial memory and attempt to infer the locations of all the targets. Direction-based strategies rely on a deictic frame of reference and focus on the directional segments themselves, keeping track of the ones that represent already-visited or to-be-visited targets. A number of observations suggest that the direction-based strategy was used, at least for larger numbers of targets, which is consistent with the deictic approach. According to our hypothesis, keeping track of the directional segments requires the use of deictic strategies for tracking segments and associating them with their status in the task -given by current status predicates Visited(x) or Not-visited(x) -perhaps using visual indexes , deictic pointers , or object files .
Individual differences in spatial learning from computer-simulated environments
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 2000
Computer-simulated environments hold promise for training people about real-world spaces. However, relatively little research has examined the role of user characteristics and abilities in determining the effectiveness of these virtual environments (VE's) for training spatial knowledge. A correlational study is reported in which the relationships between the following factors are explored: paper-and-pencil based assessments of spatial ability, ability to form an accurate spatial representation of a large realworld environment, gender, computer attitudes and experience, proficiency with the navigational interface of the virtual environment, and the ability to acquire and transfer spatial knowledge from a VE. Consistent with other studies, the relationship between psychometrically-assessed spatial ability and real-world environmental knowledge is found to be very weak. However, spatial ability is significantly associated with spatial knowledge acquisition in a virtual environment. Proficiency with the navigational interface and spatial ability are found to make a substantial contribution to individual differences in the ability to acquire spatial information from a virtual environment. Gender is also influential on many tasks, but primarily through its relationship with interface proficiency and spatial ability. Individual differences in VE's p. 4 Individual differences in spatial learning from computer-simulated environments In the last decade there has been considerable interest in using computer-simulated (virtual) environments for training spatial knowledge. Proposals about the feasibility of architectural walkthroughs (Henry & Furness, 1993), firefighter training (Bliss, Tidwell, & Guest, 1997; Egsegian, Pittman, Farmer, & Zobel, 1993), and training ground navigation to soldiers (Darken & Banker, 1998; Witmer, Baily, & Knerr, 1994) are only some of the applications of virtual environments (VE's) that require users to learn and mentally represent the spatial characteristics of a computer generated environment. In general, most of the research in this field has focused on examining aspects of VE's that are associated with their training effectiveness. There has been very little systematic research into how trainees' characteristics and prior abilities affect the usefulness of VE's for training spatial knowledge. This is unfortunate because individual differences are a major source of variation in
Navigation in Indoor Environments: Does the Type of Visual Learning Stimulus Matter?
ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 2019
This work addresses the impact of a geovisualization’s level of realism on a user’s experience in indoor navigation. The key part of the work is a user study in which participants navigated along a designated evacuation route previously learnt in a virtual tour or traditional 2D floor plan. The efficiency and effectiveness of completing the task was measured by the number of incorrect turns during navigation and completion time. The complexity of mental spatial representations that participants developed before and after navigating the route was also evaluated. The data was obtained using several qualitative and quantitative research methods (mobile eye tracking, structured interviews, sketching of cognitive maps, creation of navigation instructions, and additional questions to evaluate spatial orientation abilities). A total of 36 subjects (17 in the “floor plan” group and 19 in the “virtual tour” group) participated in the study. The results showed that the participants from both ...