ANCIENT MESOAMERICA Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Modeling Classic period social and economic systems of the ancient Maya has proven difficult for a number of reasons, including sampling, preservation, and interpretational biases. As more archaeological research has been undertaken,... more

Modeling Classic period social and economic systems of the ancient Maya has proven difficult for a number of reasons, including sampling, preservation, and interpretational biases. As more archaeological research has been undertaken, views about the Classic period Maya (a.d. 250-900) have become progressively more complex. Because neither Maya art nor hieroglyphic texts contain substantial information on ancient economic systems, some archaeologists have tended to deemphasize the impact of ancient economies in reconstructions of the Classic period Maya civilization. Archaeological research at Caracol, Belize, however, has recovered evidence of the road systems, marketplaces, and production areas that served as the backbone of the site's economic infrastructure. When combined with artifact distributions, these data demonstrate the existence of an economy based on surplus household production with distribution in eliteadministered markets. The archaeological data from Caracol not only elucidate how marketplaces were embedded in the Maya landscape, but also how they were used to integrate the site.

Examines the fire limpias ceremonies of the Yucatec Maya and Maya to initiate cleanses, prognostication and/or periodic renewals, as well as their use of velaciónes (candle work) to cleanse, renew and create. Also, explains how these... more

Examines the fire limpias ceremonies of the Yucatec Maya and Maya to initiate cleanses, prognostication and/or periodic renewals, as well as their use of velaciónes (candle work) to cleanse, renew and create.
Also, explains how these ancient traditions influenced the author’s fire limpia practices, the fundamentals in doing fire limpias as white fire, puros, and velaciónes, and shares clients’ success stories after receiving fire limpias.
The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate how the fire limpias of the ancient Mexica and Yucatec Maya were often associated with cycles of death, rebirth, renewal, and creation; to then expand on how the author has integrated these ancient traditions and values when conducting fire limpias.

Ancient Mesoamerican polities are an important source of data for considerations of state development, despite internal debate over their size and complexity. We review complex political units, usually referred to as "states" and... more

Ancient Mesoamerican polities are an important source of data for considerations of state development, despite internal debate over their size and complexity. We review complex political units, usually referred to as "states" and "empires," in ancient Mesoamerica and reach the following conclusions: these polities tended to be hegemonic, rather than territorial, in composition; they melded ritual and political action; and they utilized the ruler as a symbol of the "body politic." We also note the apparently larger size of most Maya polities as compared to other Mesoamerican city-states. Besides reviewing the commonalities among ancient Mesoamerican states, we also highlight the variation among these polities and the need to consider historic and archaeological data contextually in making interpretations of political structure.

Between A.D. 760 and 930, millions of Maya disappeared from the Earth. We examine changes in the physical environment in which the Maya lived. The ice-core evidence from Greenland indicates that around the time of the Maya Collapse, a... more

Between A.D. 760 and 930, millions of Maya disappeared from the Earth. We examine changes in the physical environment in which the Maya lived. The ice-core evidence from Greenland indicates that around the time of the Maya Collapse, a minimum in solar insolation and a low in solar activity occurred, accompanied by severe cold and dryness over Greenland, indicating hemispheric climatic conditions propitious for drought in the Maya Lowlands. In the northeastern Caribbean, sea-surface salinity (SSS) was lowered. The most severe drought of the past 7,000 years devastated the Yucatan Peninsula. Large Maya cities collapsed in four phases of abandonment spaced about fifty years apart around A.D. 760, 810, 860, and 910. A new core taken from Lake Chichancanab in Quintana Roo shows three peak episodes of brutal drought within a 150-to 200-year drought. A marine core from the Cariaco Basin off Venezuela precisely dates four severe drought episodes to 760, 810, 860, and 910, coincident with the four phases of abandonment of cities. The long-term drought appears to have lasted from 760 to 930 in the Cariaco Basin. The climatic changes were the most drastic the Maya had faced in the preceding 1,500 years and the most severe of the preceding 7,000 years. productivity and directly through vital rates." He also found that a 18C warming of winter temperature would reduce annual mortality by about 2% and a 18C cooling of summer temperature would reduce annual mortality by about 4%. In short, then, Lee found that mortality in England was increased by cold temperatures in winter and hot temperatures in summer, and fertility was decreased by the same conditions, a very clear and direct tie between climate and the fate of human populations (Ingram et al. 1981:28; Lee 1981 Lee : 398, 1987.

Index 397 1.4. Relative interconnectedness of Mixteca Alta and Valley of Oaxaca regions 2.1. View of the Main Plaza of Monte Albán 45 2.2. The carved-stone monuments from Building L-sub 2.3. Plan: eastern half of Río Viejo, Mound 1 and... more

Index 397 1.4. Relative interconnectedness of Mixteca Alta and Valley of Oaxaca regions 2.1. View of the Main Plaza of Monte Albán 45 2.2. The carved-stone monuments from Building L-sub 2.3. Plan: eastern half of Río Viejo, Mound 1 and Mound 9, Structure 4 2.4. Retaining wall of an adobe platform on the acropolis at Río Viejo 3.1. Forms of built space associated with specific social institutions and strategies 3.2. Ceramic model: burial procession with the dead and pallbearers 65 3.3. Ceramic model: simplified guachimontón public architecture 3.4. Ceramic model: ballcourt with ballgame in progress 3.5. Map: Tequila valleys, Jalisco, with sites by site-size hierarchy FIGURES x 3.6. Map: large residential groups, shaft tombs, and guachimontones 75 4.1. Central valleys of Jalisco, showing settlement patterns for the Postclassic 4.2. Postclassic settlement tiers, based on site size 4.3. Santa María architectural settlement clusters 4.4. Three sections of Santa María, residential groups: highest point of site 95 4.5. Three sections of Santa María, residential groups: hill 4.6. Three sections of Santa María, residential groups: piedmont 4.7. Late Postclassic ceramic diagnostic forms 5.1. South-central Veracruz: selected sites and regions 5.2. The secondary center of La Mixtequilla 5.3. Summary of facings of SPPGs and Long Plaza Plans 5.4. Mixtequilla survey: SPPG variants 6.1. Merchants' feather merchandise 6.2. Aztec tribute demands in quetzal feathers 6.3. Aztec tribute demands in quetzal-feathered devices 7.1. Select archaeological sites, eastern periphery of the Maya lowlands 7.2. Civic centers: Xunantunich, Actuncan, and Buenavista del Cayo, Belize 7.3. Obsidian-to-sherd ratio over time in elite and commoner contexts 8.1. The Småland Plateau 8.2. Sweden, major regions and the "small lands" of Småland 8.3. Four study blocks with varying proximity to Visingsö Island FIGURES xi 8.4. Skärstad-Ölmstad Valley: changing landscape use, Iron Age to Medieval period 202 9.1. Approximate location of kingdom of Bunyoro, nineteenth century 209 10.1. Archaeological sites in northern and southern Mesopotamia 10.2. Locations of Indus civilization sites 232 11.1. Floor plan and its graph 242 11.2a. Walangama pil gē, built around 1940 246 11.2b. Floor plan of typical Walangama pil gē 247 11.3a. Walangama California-style house, built in 2011 250 11.3b. Floor plan of typical California-style house 251 11.4. Walangama two-story house under construction in 2013 256 12.1. Relationship between network strategy and natural disasters 263 13.1. Time from first settled agricultural villages to large villages 276 13.2. Village formation and state development in eight world areas where states ultimately developed 277 13.3. Sequence from first sedentary villages to more nucleated centers 278 13.4. Size of largest cities in early states 279 13.5. Internal and external sources of funds 284 13.6. Model of collective action 285 13.7. Relationship between population size, hierarchical complexity, and social capital/ collective action 287 13.8. Relationship between population size and increasing complexity for collective and autocratic organization 288 15.1. Correlation plots for corporate power: public goods and control of principals 319 TABLES xiv 12.3b. Predictors of external warfare 265 13.1. Human behavior: basic principles 13.2. Theoretical frames on the preindustrial past 13.3. Organizational thresholds of human groups 13.4. Variation in modes of finance and leadership 15.1. Corporate power variables 15.2. Degree of horizontal power-sharing codes

This article focuses on Structures 12 and 22 from Yaxchilan (Chiapas, Mexico), where the ancient Maya reset stone lintels from the sixth century a.d. in eighth-century buildings. The resetting highlights attention to the preservation of... more

In this article the significance of Teotihuacan's most sumptuous monument is studied: the Temple of Quetzalcoatl. Based on iconographic studies, together with the results of recent archaeological excavations, it is possible to deduce that... more

In this article the significance of Teotihuacan's most sumptuous monument is studied: the Temple of Quetzalcoatl. Based on iconographic studies, together with the results of recent archaeological excavations, it is possible to deduce that the building was dedicated to the myth of the origin of time and calendric succession. The sculptures on its facades represent the Feathered Serpent at the moment of the creation. The Feathered Serpent bears the complex headdress of Cipactli, symbol of time, on his body. The archaeological materials discovered coincide with iconographic data and with this interpretation. Other monuments in Mesoamerica are also apparently consecrated in honor of this same myth and portray similar symbolism.

This study explores the multifaceted Maya Deluge Myth, from its pre-Columbian origins to current fantasies about a great world-destroying flood at the 13 Baktun period ending of the Maya Long Count on 21 (or 23) December 2012. No such... more

This study explores the multifaceted Maya Deluge Myth, from its pre-Columbian origins to current fantasies about a great world-destroying flood at the 13 Baktun period ending of the Maya Long Count on 21 (or 23) December 2012. No such flood is prophesied in any Maya records for this date, and the famous scene on Dresden Codex page 74 is discussed in its context as a symbolic depiction of the annual world-renewing downpours at the onset of the rainy season in springtime in the Maya world. The presiding gods of warfare and blood sacrifice were the agents of fertility and the regeneration of nature, and not the agents for the destruction of the Maya in a world-ending deluge. The misinterpretation of Dresden page 74 has propagated, unchallenged, for over a century of Maya scholarship and found its way into “new age,” fringe, and popular culture. This research helps to set the record straight along with providing a history of the meme.

Investigations at Punta Canbalam on the Gulf Coast of Campeche reveal it is probably the largest of several important but underreported trading sites on the pan-Mesoamerican maritime trade route. The coastline has been unstable for the... more

Investigations at Punta Canbalam on the Gulf Coast of Campeche reveal it is probably the largest of several important but underreported trading sites on the pan-Mesoamerican maritime trade route. The coastline has been unstable for the last thousand years, subjecting the site to sea level changes and repeated episodes of beach erosion and redeposition. The relatively dense scatter of temporally mixed, highly weathered sherds and other artifacts on an exceedingly narrow, modern beach indicates that it is all secondarily deposited and that its original location was offshore. An interdisciplinary team is beginning to recognize clues in its environmental and cultural contexts as to where this peripatetic site was originally located and the extent to which it depended upon exchanges of salt, petty commodities from inland, and canoe-borne exotics from afar. This predominantly Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic site likely served as a port of entry for obsidian, jade, fine-paste ceramics, and other goods for the nearby inland city of Chunchucmil. It also probably supplied the interior with marine and estuarine food and ornamental and ritual products in exchange for inland agricultural products and other items.

The origin of the words 'cacao' and 'chocolate' and their use in the reconstruction of the early history of Mesoamerica, remain very controversial issues. Cambell and Kaufman (1976, American Antiquity 41:80-89), for example, proposed that... more

The origin of the words 'cacao' and 'chocolate' and their use in the reconstruction of the early history of Mesoamerica, remain very controversial issues. Cambell and Kaufman (1976, American Antiquity 41:80-89), for example, proposed that the word 'cacao' originated from Mixe-Zoque languages, thus possibly representing Olmec traditions. According to this argument, other Mesoamerican languages, including Nahuatl, borrowed the word as a symbol of prestige and Olmec influence. Other researchers claim the word 'chocolate' represents a more recent neologism, a possible Maya-Nahuatl hybrid, due to the late appearance of the word in central Mexico's Colonial sources. We refute the putative Mixe-Zoque origin of 'cacao' and provide linguistic evidence to propose that 'cacao,' like 'chocolate,' is a Uto-Aztecan term. Analysis of these words highlights general and particular evolutionary trends that originate from the Uto-Aztecan language family. In addition, we show that these two words were initially used as descriptive terms to refer to the shape of the plant's bean and the techniques of drink preparation. Etymological evidence verifies the use of a Mayan term for cacao as early as the Classic period (fourth century a.d.). This early appearance of the term in Mayan and the later diffusion of the Nahua word throughout all of Mesoamerica correlate with additional data to support the conclusion that Teotihuacanos spoke Nahuatl.

For too long, Mayanists working in northern Yucatan have retained a focus on the single site. Although a few recent papers have begun to examine this area in regional terms, the world--systems perspective has yet to be applied. In this... more

For too long, Mayanists working in northern Yucatan have retained a focus on the single site. Although a few recent papers have begun to examine this area in regional terms, the world--systems perspective has yet to be applied. In this paper the world--systems framework is used to examine the post-Teotihuacan core cemer of Chichen ltza and its hinterland. Various lines of information are combined to achieve the fullest possible picture, including new settlement.,pattern data, related ethnohistoric material, and a brief consideration of existing iconographic studies. Comparative examples from contemporary sites in other parts of Mesoamerica are provided to illustrate the systemic interconnections that characterize a "world system."

This paper analyzes the roles and attributes of the Maya goddess Ix Hun Ahau, the female manifestation of Hun Ahau that appears in the Ritual of the Bacabs. This Colonial Yucatec text is our earliest surviving source for how Maya... more

This paper analyzes the roles and attributes of the Maya goddess Ix Hun Ahau, the female manifestation of Hun Ahau that appears in the
Ritual of the Bacabs. This Colonial Yucatec text is our earliest surviving source for how Maya cosmology provided a framework for
healing practices. Although the extant manuscript dates to the late eighteenth century, it is the culmination of centuries of interethnic
interaction, including innovations emerging from the intellectual exchange that characterized Mesoamerica during the Late Postclassic
period (ca. A.D. 1200–1500). The accoutrements and activities ascribed to this goddess in the incantations identify her as a Maya parallel
to Tlazolteotl-Ixcuina, the Nahua goddess of weaving, sexuality, pollution, and its purification. Pollution concepts and purification
practices that are otherwise peripheral in the Ritual of the Bacabs are specifically related to Ix Hun Ahau, suggesting that early intellectual
exchange between Mesoamerican peoples extended to medical cosmologies as well.

In this article I argue that the graphic images of the gods in the divinatory codices are composed of signs of different semantic values which encode particular properties. All of them contribute to creating the identity of the god.... more

In this article I argue that the graphic images of the gods in the divinatory codices are composed of signs of different semantic values which encode particular properties. All of them contribute to creating the identity of the god. However, these graphic elements are not only shared by different deities, but even differ between representations of the same god. Analyzing the graphic images of Xipe Totec, one of the best-studied deities and one of the oldest in Mesoamerica, I elaborate a hypothesis that the images of the gods in the divinatory codices were perceived by their authors as a mosaic of different properties, which at the same time were dynamic. Consequently, there was not even one “prototypical” representation of a single god, since possibly the identity of a god was defined precisely when composing his/her image with particular graphic signs, thus crystallizing some of his/her multiple properties, important at this precise moment.

... Gerardo Aldana Department of Chicana and Chicano Studies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-4120, USA Abstract ... the recovery of the type of astrology most commonly attributed to the ancient Maya: that concerning the... more

... Gerardo Aldana Department of Chicana and Chicano Studies, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-4120, USA Abstract ... the recovery of the type of astrology most commonly attributed to the ancient Maya: that concerning the “star war.” Popularized by Linda Schele ...

Excavations beneath the Copan Acropolis provide the most complete record known for the origins and development of an Early Classic Maya royal complex (ca. AD 420–650). Beginning at the time of the historically identified dynastic founder,... more

Excavations beneath the Copan Acropolis provide the most complete record known for the origins and development of an Early Classic Maya royal complex (ca. AD 420–650). Beginning at the time of the historically identified dynastic founder, the earliest levels include the first royal ...

A queer archaeology is often equated to looking for ancient homosexuality. As a challenge to heteronormative practice, queer theory, instead, provides a framework for engaging with all aspects of identity formation and the processes and... more

A queer archaeology is often equated to looking for ancient homosexuality. As a challenge to heteronormative practice, queer theory, instead, provides a framework for engaging with all aspects of identity formation and the processes and behaviors that mediate it. This article examines how queer theory can inform discussions of archaeological identity, first with respect to its place in broader feminist and archaeological literature; second in its correspondence to theoretical models of identity formation and the construction of difference; and finally in its applicability to models of ancient Maya social organization and commoner identity.

The original research by the Teotihuacan Mapping Project (TMP) identified a large number of obsidian workshops within Teotihuacan based on surface concentrations of production debris. Clark (1986b) questioned the validity of these... more

The original research by the Teotihuacan Mapping Project (TMP) identified a large number of obsidian workshops within Teotihuacan based on surface concentrations of production debris. Clark (1986b) questioned the validity of these identifications and called for subsurface excavation to confirm the presence of in situ workshop locales. This article summarizes the results from the excavation of one of the obsidian workshops identified in the Tlajinga district of Teotihuacan at Compound 17:S3E1 (Compound 17). We describe the excavations, discuss the lithic technology, and examine the subsurface contexts in terms of what they tell us about in situ obsidian craft activity. Excavations confirm that Compound 17 was a locus of large-scale obsidian craft production during the Classic period. While only a single test case, these results suggest that surface remains at Teotihuacan can be a useful guide in identifying craft production areas when they are confirmed through subsurface testing.

Since the late 1950s, scholars have analyzed emblem glyphs to better understand the political organization of the Classic Maya (a.d. 300-900/1000). These unique glyphs reflect a certain royal self-understanding, for they were used as a... more

Since the late 1950s, scholars have analyzed emblem glyphs to better understand the political organization of the Classic Maya (a.d. 300-900/1000). These unique glyphs reflect a certain royal self-understanding, for they were used as a title by the rulers to distinguish themselves from other noblemen within a milieu of growing competition for prestige and power. While this has been well documented in the central and southern lowlands, evidence for the existence of emblem glyphs in northwestern Yucatan-a region defined by certain cultural traits also reflected in the inscriptions-has been scarce. This study not only explores whether and how further emblem glyphs can be detected in the inscriptions of northwestern Yucatan by questioning the traditional definition of this title. It also, as a consequence, sheds new light on royal self-representation and political organization in northwestern Yucatan during the Classic period.

Textiles formed a major part of any ancient Mesoamerican economy. Based on ethnohistory and iconography, the Maya were great producers of cloth for both internal and external use. However, the archaeological identification of textile... more

Textiles formed a major part of any ancient Mesoamerican economy. Based on ethnohistory and iconography, the Maya were great producers of cloth for both internal and external use. However, the archaeological identification of textile production is difficult in any tropical area because of issues of preservation. This paper examines the evidence for the production and distribution of cloth that is found in the pre-Columbian Maya area and then focuses on archaeological data relative to textiles from the ancient Maya city of Caracol, Belize. Archaeology at Caracol has been carried out annually from 1985 to the present and has resulted in the collection of data that permits insight into the economic production and social distribution of cloth at the site. This is accomplished through examining the contexts and distributions of spindle whorls, bone needles, bone pins and hairpins, bone awls, and limestone bars. All of these artifacts can be related to weaving, netting, or cloth in some way. Importantly, perforated ceramic disks are not included in this grouping because of contextual information from the archaeological record that these artifacts likely functioned as backings for ear assemblages. Spindle whorls are the artifacts most clearly associated with textile production and 57 of these have been recovered at Caracol, 38 of them in 20 different burials. Several of these interments are of high-status women placed in the most important architectural constructions at the site. The contextual placement of these burials stresses not only the link between women and weaving, but also the high status associated with such an activity, thus signaling the importance of cloth and spinning in ancient Maya society. The prevalence of female interments in the major ritual buildings at Caracol also reflects the importance of women to Maya social structure during the Classic period (A.D. 250-900), pointing to difficulties in hieroglyphically based interpretations of ancient Maya social organization and suggesting that the traditional focus on males in the sociopolitical organization of the Classic Maya is incorrect.

Recent investigations carried out at the Maya site of Nakum, located in the northeastern part of Guatemala, revealed traces of very intense Terminal Classic period occupation and architectural construction and renovation. Archaeological... more

Recent investigations carried out at the Maya site of Nakum, located in the northeastern part of Guatemala, revealed traces of very intense Terminal Classic period occupation and architectural construction and renovation. Archaeological excavations in the site's core and its periphery indicate that the apogee of Nakum's cultural prosperity and demographic increase occurred during the Terminal Classic period when many new structures were constructed and almost all old constructions were rebuilt. The growth and prosperity of Terminal Classic Nakum stands in stark contrast to the prevailing pattern of collapse and abandonment seen at many other lowland Maya sites during this turbulent period. Archaeological and epigraphic data suggest that Nakum survived the collapse of other major cities such as Tikal or Naranjo by at least a century. Nakum's success can be attributed to its role as a fluvial port that controlled commercial activities within this region. Its advantageous location on the banks of the Holmul River, combined with weakened competition from formerly more powerful neighbors such as Tikal and Naranjo, apparently permitted Nakum's ruling elite to actively expand its trade relationships in spite of the broad economic and political crisis that profoundly affected the Southern Maya Lowlands. However, its success was relatively brief, for by the end of the Terminal Classic (ca. a.d. 950) Nakum apparently succumbed to the same forces that had caused the collapse and abandonment of most Southern Maya Lowland cities.

A series of highly elaborated burial/offering complexes have been discovered recently in association with seven superimposed monumental constructions at the Moon Pyramid. The archaeological contexts excavated during the past seven years... more

A series of highly elaborated burial/offering complexes have been discovered recently in association with seven superimposed monumental constructions at the Moon Pyramid. The archaeological contexts excavated during the past seven years indicate that these dedicatory complexes were symbols of a state religious ideology and communicated sociopolitical information on behalf of ruling elites. Rich artifacts made of obsidian, greenstone, shell, pyrite, ceramics, wood, and textile, as well as abundant skeletal remains of sacrificed animals and human beings, stand out in these unusual ritual deposits. Many of the offerings possess strong connotations of warfare and ritual sacrifice. After describing the five burial/offering complexes and discussing their possible function and religious significance, we conclude that, when the expanding Teotihuacan state orchestrated these monumental constructions, the most important ritual paraphernalia was buried in the new enlargement programs to expres...

This article offers a revision of the chronology and settlement history of Tula, Hidalgo, synthesizing information obtained from numerous investigations and 68 radiocarbon and seven archaeomagnetic dates. Tula Chico's earliest... more

This article offers a revision of the chronology and settlement history of Tula, Hidalgo, synthesizing information obtained from numerous investigations and 68 radiocarbon and seven archaeomagnetic dates. Tula Chico's earliest settlement appeared while the region was under the control of Teotihuacan as one of many hilltop Coyotlatelco settlements in the region. The monumental center at Tula Grande did not appear until after Tula grew to power, presumably with the consolidation of the other Coyotlatelco polities. Extensive exposure of residential structures in numerous localities have revealed a widespread pattern of barrios containing households exhibiting a wide range of social status that enjoyed access to a wide variety of luxury items including the first reported objects of gold. Tula Grande and the Tollan phase city appear to have already been abandoned and in ruins prior to the arrival of Aztec II peoples. The Late Aztec period occupation shows a preoccupation with Tula&#3...

... AD 1150) to the conquest of the Aztecs under the leadership of Cortés (1519–1521), complex ... lections indicated that the items produced there included obsidian cores and blades, ceramic figurines, and ... To find in a single Aztec... more

... AD 1150) to the conquest of the Aztecs under the leadership of Cortés (1519–1521), complex ... lections indicated that the items produced there included obsidian cores and blades, ceramic figurines, and ... To find in a single Aztec site such extensive and abundant ev-idence of ...

In 1931 and 1932, George Vaillant and Sigvald Linné excavated 34 burials and 17 offerings dating to the Early Postclassic period (a.d. 900-1150). The features were located on the ruins of the Classic-period site of Teotihuacan and within... more

In 1931 and 1932, George Vaillant and Sigvald Linné excavated 34 burials and 17 offerings dating to the Early Postclassic period (a.d. 900-1150). The features were located on the ruins of the Classic-period site of Teotihuacan and within the boundaries of a roughly 25-50 ha zone identified by the Teotihuacan Mapping Project as having a dense Early Postclassic-period occupation. The results of Vaillant's excavations have not been published. An examination of the Vaillant-Linné data sheds new light on Early Postclassic-period mortuary ritual and social organization. The identification of several types of burials shows that local people conducted primary and secondary mortuary rituals and indicates the presence of at least two social strata at the site. The content of the burials and offerings supports a division of the Early Postclassic period into two local phases, Mazapan (ca. a.d. 900-1000) and Atlatongo (ca. a.d. 1000-1100/1150), with these features dating to the earlier phase.

... George Ernest Hasemann 1944-1998. Boyd Dixon. ... His final book, Clovis Revisited, written with AT Boldurian, was in press at the time of his death. It looks back at his early work on Paleoindians and puts it into context with... more

... George Ernest Hasemann 1944-1998. Boyd Dixon. ... His final book, Clovis Revisited, written with AT Boldurian, was in press at the time of his death. It looks back at his early work on Paleoindians and puts it into context with current Paleoindian research. ...

This article presents the chronological framework used to reconstruct the political history of the ancient Lowland Maya site of Xunantunich in the upper Belize River valley. Extensive excavations from 1991 to 1997 by the Xunantunich... more

This article presents the chronological framework used to reconstruct the political history of the ancient Lowland Maya site of Xunantunich in the upper Belize River valley. Extensive excavations from 1991 to 1997 by the Xunantunich Archaeological Project produced the ceramic. architectural, and epigraphic data needed to place the site within a temporal context. Refinement of the Barton Ramie ceramic chronology was the first step toward clarifying the Xunantunich chronology. Seriation of well-known Spanish Lookout types and modes from stratified deposits established a framework for understanding Late and Terminal Classic assemblages. Twenty-two radiocarbon samples place these ceramic complexes in absolute time. Obsidian hydration and masonry techniques were found to be less reliable chronological markers. The results indicate that Xunantunich emerged as a regional center during the Samal (A.D. 600-670) and Hats' Chaak (A.D. 670-780) phases of the Late Classic period. Arguably, this rapid growth and florescence was initiated under the auspices of nearby Naranjo. Although the polity achieved political autonomy in the following Tsak' phase (A.D. 780-890) of the Terminal Classic period, civic construction diminished and rural populations declined until the site collapsed sometime during the late ninth or early tenth century.

The Izalcos Pipil were pre-Hispanic residents of the Río Ceniza Valley of western El Salvador and had clear linguistic ties to the Aztecs and other Nahuas of central Mexico. Both archaeological and documentary data are presented that show... more

The Izalcos Pipil were pre-Hispanic residents of the Río Ceniza Valley of western El Salvador and had clear linguistic ties to the Aztecs and other Nahuas of central Mexico. Both archaeological and documentary data are presented that show strong evidence that the Izalcos Pipil also maintained Nahua social and political institutions. The Izalcos Pipil emphasized characteristics of Nahua social practices that depend on dynamic mobility on the landscape to articulate discrete cultural elements, and these characteristics are observable in Izalcos inter-and intrasite settlement organization and the distribution of Nahua settlement in southern Mesoamerica. The degree of mobility on the landscape was shown in the internal organization of sites, architectural arrangements, and the relationships among sites and is indicated in historical documents. Pipil concepts, institutions, and boundaries provided the foundation for the Spanish colonial political economy. This region became a jewel in the Spanish Crown in part because of prodigious cacao production that the Izalcos Pipil established long before Spanish contact. The degree of nucleation before and after conquest did not change dramatically, but the analysis of mobility showed that even though some elements of patterning appeared superficially the same, underlying causes were fundamentally different. The most important conquest-induced change was the transition to capitalism, which created a static, disarticulated landscape of nucleated settlements, enclosures, and private property that discouraged human movement. The tensions between these two contrasting systems of landscape use heightened with the passage of time.

En referencia a lo que se sabe de los mexica y demás grupos nahuas, se menciona que el concepto que se tenía sobre los dioses que regían en el Cosmos, en el Inframundo y en el plano terrestre, donde se desenvuelve el ser humano; o el... more

En referencia a lo que se sabe de los mexica y demás grupos nahuas, se menciona que el concepto que se tenía sobre los dioses que regían en el Cosmos, en el Inframundo y en el plano terrestre, donde se desenvuelve el ser humano; o el arriba, el abajo y la biósfera como actualmente es conceptuada, eran la residencia de todas las energías manifiestas en deidades duales con funciones polarizadas y complementarias que, a la vez, se podían dividir en otras dualidades para ejercer sus diversas funciones.
Parece que ese mismo concepto de dualidad genética fue compartido, desde etapas muy tempranas, por todas las deidades mesoamericanas y tal vez panamericanas, puesto que en el caso de los dioses del agua, existen representaciones masculinas y femeninas de este primordial elemento de la naturaleza, conocidas como Tlaloc y Chachiuhitlicue.